With robots in agriculture becoming more of the norm rather than the exception, the term high-tech farming is no longer an oxymoron. Farming robots are now involved in almost every farming activity, helping farmers fill labor shortages and supermarket shelves simultaneously.

The Future of Agriculture: Adopting More Advanced Robots for Next-Gen Farming

Historically, robot programming has been the sole domain of manufacturing engineers, highly trained workers, and integrators with specialized skills. But, with only 1 robotics engineer for every 11 factories, there simply are not enough trained workers to design, install and maintain robotic automation. This shortage of workers capable of programming robots and automation makes them expensive, drives up the overall cost of automation, and limits the adoption of robotic automation. Since the training requirements to learn how to program a robot are very high, it’s unlikely that as an industry we’ll be able to train enough workers to implement the level of automation necessary to solve the overall labor gap. A radical change in how robots are programmed is needed.Let’s explore the reasons why programming robots is hard, and why READY is so focused on making industrial robots easy for anyone to program.1. Every robot has its own programming languageAutomation Engineers develop tasks in the robot brands native programming language. Each robot arm manufacturer’s programming language is unique. For example, FANUC has Karel, Universal Robots has URScript, Yaskawa Motoman has INFORM, ABB has RAPID, and Kuka uses KRL. Automation Engineers need to learn a new programming language every time they want to program, modify, or troubleshoot a different brand of arm. <img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1607113556702-Robot-Languages.png" style="width: 759px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"> 2. Programming Interfaces are antiquatedTeach Pendants are necessary for controlling the robot arm, safety of the cell, and other peripheral devices. The programming environment on the teach pendants lacks many of the conveniences of modern technology. Conveniences such as multi-touch screens, graphical cues, drag and drop, and even cut and paste are commonly missing features. Because the interface is so different, the person responsible for programming must adapt to a suboptimal interface. This lack of familiarity with the programming environment is a significant barrier for developers to learn automation.3. Robot training courses require prerequisitesClasses from robot manufacturers, trade school and private training providers require prerequisites to take a more useful robot programming class. These prerequisite classes often take weeks to complete. This means a lot of time off work to complete hours of prerequisite training. All this time invested will only teach you how to develop simple application programs. <img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1607113622246-shutterstock_289448903-1024x683.jpg" style="width: 719px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"> 4. Training is expensive and time consumingAccording to the manufacturer’s class we looked at, it takes 72 hours of training to develop a simple application in their programming language. This is not even a fraction of the knowledge you need to develop an automation system. It can cost thousands of dollars to attend these training sessions. To handle advanced integrations like cameras, barcode readers or force sensors, you could have thousands in additional classroom costs. Multiply those costs by a factor of 2-5 if you want to have redundant programming resources on your factory floor!5. There’s so much more than the robot arm.Industrial robot arms do not work in isolation. They must have their own movements which must be coordinated with the items attached to the arm such as the end of arm tooling, sensors, and safety equipment. But there are other components in the workcell that need to work in tandem with the arm. There needs to be communication between the other peripherals such as force sensors and vision systems, machine tools, parts presentation, and other equipment in the cell. This adds to the level of complexity for automating any task. For a deeper dive into the difficulties of programming robots, download our white paper:<a href="https://www.ready-robotics.com/resources/whitepapers/5-reasons-programming-robots-is-so-hard" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">https://www.ready-robotics.com/resources/whitepapers/5-reasons-programming-robots-is-so-hard</a>

The robot programming barrier is limiting the spread of automation, but this doesn't need to be the case.

The robot programming barrier keeps automation out of reach for many manufacturers. Let’s explore the key factors that make robot programming so difficult, so we can make automation accessible to the entire manufacturing sector.

5 Reasons Programming Robots is Hard

Humanoid robots have been a topic of deep interest amongst engineers due to their ability to perform in environments primarily designed for humans. The field of robotics in general is quite unique as it is made of a fusion of many disciplines from mechanical design to biology. However, the humanoid is particularly fascinating to humankind as it mimics the human form. &nbsp;Generally speaking, a robot can perform a variety of tasks autonomously. Robots can fall into different categories such as industrial, service, social, humanoid, etc..&nbsp;Industrial robots, for instance, as the name suggests are designed with the intention of performing a specific task within an industrial context i.e. welding (commonly deployed in automotive plants), commercial vacuum cleaning, and so on. Humanoid robots on the other hand can be merely the design of a particular body part or a complete imitation of the human biomechanics. Through developing humanoids not only we can build machines that are able to operate in human environments but also gain a better understanding of the movements of the human body. This also enables us to design and create more optimal protheses for injured people.&nbsp;<h1 dir="ltr">Overall Design Considerations&nbsp;</h1>The key consideration associated with the outer appearance of the humanoid robot is how much it will emulate human features. The cornerstone of developing humanoid robots is that they can interact seamlessly with humans. So, understanding how much verbal understanding or response it should be able to perform is paramount. This also determines to what extent these robots can navigate environments natural to humans and operate as such.&nbsp;Suffice it to say, when designing a robot, important factors include size, strength and weight. In addition, application plays a crucial role in the development and design process. For example, the infamous <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/wevolver.staff/atlas.robot/" target="_blank">ATLAS robot</a> from Boston Dynamics is designed for physical performances whilst doing motion generation. To perform tasks at a fast pace, humanoid robots should account for stiffness and power output, light weight and more vigilant real-time information processing capabilities. All in all, The design principles can be divided into four following categories:<ul><li dir="ltr">Proportions of the body:&nbsp;In order to achieve human-like kinematics and dynamics, similar mass distributions and link lengths are required. Furthermore, humanoids are able to fit better within human environments when accounting for strong body proportion similarities.</li><li dir="ltr">Skeletal structure:&nbsp;One important consideration for mimicking the human body is a high degree of fidelity in skeletal structure. Human joints are made up of both single-axis rotation and rolling-sliding joints. This combination allows for sliding and rotation movements between the bones. To emulate flexible upper body movement, spine joints with multiple vertebrae are helpful.</li><li dir="ltr">Joint performance:&nbsp;Joint performance determines how the humanoid performs when it comes to the whole-body motion. Two factors impacting joint performance are joint range of motion and power output.</li><li dir="ltr">Arrangement of muscles: Muscle arrangement is essential for identifying the muscle-joint-operational mappins, which provide muscle contribution in adequate tendency during whole-body movements. To design a humanoid with human-like muscle arrangement, the humanoid should possess as many muscle actuators as the design space allows for</li></ul><iframe src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/_sBBaNYex3E?&amp;wmode=opaque" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="" class="fr-draggable" style="width: 753px; height: 411px;"></iframe> <h2 dir="ltr">Mechanical Structure of Humanoid Robots &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</h2>Human structure has always been the source of inspiration for the humanoid robot's kinematic structure. Thus, most humanoids resemble human features such as head, legs, hands, feet, etc. Moreover, these robots typically include similar Degrees of Freedom (DOFs) to a human being. Evidently, such robots are designed to be human-like. Thus, the center of motion of the robot should be located in the vicinity of its ‘belly button’. The human musculoskeletal system is essentially made up of bones, cartilage, muscles, tendons and skin. It consists of more than 206 bones and 600 muscles.&nbsp;Through biomechanics, the musculoskeletal system can be regarded as a mechanical system: the bones can be the rigid links, and the cartilage connects these links. The lower body is generally composed of a waist, upper legs, lower legs and feet in a redundant and human-like kinematic configuration, similar Range of Motion (ROM) and similar joint velocities and accelerations. The ‘legs’ consist of 3 rotation joints with one joint allowing for knee flexion-extension and two other for the flexion-extension and prono-supination of ankles. The type of application determines the grippers used in humanoid robots.&nbsp;<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1603454172956-robots_0+%281%29.jpg">Image: Boston DynamicsFeet are perhaps the most important aspect and they must handle impacts of landing and prevent slippage. Humanoid robots should possess soles with materials and shapes that provide enough friction. For instance, the <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/wevolver.staff/lola/" target="_blank">LOLA robot</a> (a project built with the goal of creating a machine that is capable of stable and fast walking) deploys Sylomer (a special elastomer material) with an elastic modulus that is higher at the heel.&nbsp;There’s a wide variety of tasks a humanoid robot can overtake, from extreme or dangerous environments to healthcare. The technology pioneering the progress of these robots continues to grow by leaps and bounds and so does with it their application.<h1 dir="ltr">Sources &amp; Further Reading&nbsp;</h1><a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/ebiom/article/PIIS2352-3964(19)30534-1/fulltext" target="_blank">Human–robotic interfaces to shape the future of prosthetics</a><a href="http://ai.stanford.edu/~rxzhang/Mechanical_Design_And_Control_System.pdf" target="_blank">Mechanical Design And Control System Configuration of a Humanoid Robot</a><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0928425709000400" target="_blank">Humanoid robot Lola: Design and walking control</a>

Chair of Applied Mechanics, Technical University of Munich (TUM)

Humanoid robots require deeper consideration than just mimicking humans.

Design Considerations for Humanoid Robots

This is the final article of an&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/what-is-a-collaborative-robot" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">eight-part series&nbsp;</a>that explores how collaborative robots or cobots are transforming industrial workspaces. It surveys the technologies that have converged to make robotic influence possible, unpack the unique engineering challenges robotics pose, and describe the solutions that are leading the way to the influential robots of the future.The articles were originally published in an e-magazine, and have been substantially edited by Wevolver to update them and make them available on the Wevolver platform. This series is sponsored by Mouser, an online distributor of electronic components. Through their sponsorship,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.mouser.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Mouser Electronics</a>&nbsp;supports spreading knowledge about collaborative robots.<h1>Introduction</h1>Our workspace and labor environments are one of the biggest drivers for technological advancement. From the rise of the personal computer to advanced video conferencing, our need for productive and comfortable methods of working remains a priority for innovation. In the coming generation, robotics will be one area where we will see huge advancements. Robots will move from impersonal objects performing production operations located on <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/technologies-converge-to-help-drive-manufacturing-applications" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">factory floors</a> to personal objects interacting with both workers and customers throughout the business environment.<h2>Collaborative robots</h2>Collaborative robots, lightweight, agile and reactive robots designed for close use with humans will <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/cobots-are-collaborators-ai-will-make-them-partners" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">work jointly together</a> with humanity on activities related to the delivery of goods and services. These highly advanced machines will influence the workplace with far more force than personal computers. This article will examine and discuss what this transformational revolution will mean for the workforce of tomorrow both on a process and social level.The impact on workers will require them to adjust their creative talents to position themselves to guide, direct, and control robots rather than merely be displaced. The seismic shift in our work requires us to look at how society needs to prepare for a future that is always approaching and requires that people maintain high degrees of adaptability, flexibility, and ingenuity.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiAid2V2b2x2ZXItcHJvamVjdC1pbWFnZXMiLCAia2V5IjogImZyb2FsYS8xNjAwODU4NjE1ODc4LTA3MDEgKDEpLmpwZyIsICJlZGl0cyI6IHsicmVzaXplIjogeyJ3aWR0aCI6IDk1MCwgImZpdCI6ICJjb3ZlciJ9fX0=">Autonomous warehouse assistants are becoming increasingly commonplace Image:&nbsp;<a href="https://6river.com/" target="_blank">6river</a><h1>Economics of Automation</h1>The reason why collaborative robots are making inroads is a matter of the economics of automation. Automation means that a process is self-moving, working by itself with little or no direct human control. Automation brings economic advantages to the workplace by increasing productivity.A key economic advantage is there is less human involvement, meaning that a cost expenditure&mdash;of human labor&mdash;is reduced. Naturally, the reduction in human capital gets mitigated by increased expenditures for automation equipment. In this case, collaborative robots.A collaborative robot can successfully emulate a human operator&rsquo;s physical skills, performing with higher precision and reliability while doing it without fatigue&mdash;potentially 24/7. Presently, manual tasks such as moving and stacking inventory may get performed through the assistance of collaborative robots. Humans are vulnerable to injury from repetitive tasks and may be slower to complete tasks as they age. Collaborative robots, with proper maintenance, are extremely robust and dependable.Besides being steady and reliable, automation reduces errors, providing further economic incentives. Collaborative robots can perform their programmed tasks to their intended completion. If they run into issues, they can be programmed to either solve the problem or move on to other programmed activities to maximize efficiency.Collaborative robots bring humans and automation together into a working relationship. It demands that there is a proper understanding of what should be automated and how much it will cost to realize this automation. Bringing collaborative robots to the forefront will impact the workforce and the market for labor. How fast these systems will become reality is uncertain, but it is certain that they are coming. Collaborative robots will provide opportunities for many companies to provide better service and value to their customers.<h1>Automation alongside humans</h1>Blockbuster films often inform the general public&rsquo;s idea of robots. The Star Wars series, for example, has positively positioned collaborative robots in the minds of many through its depiction of C-P30, with his ability to assist in language translation and R2-D2&rsquo;s astro-mechanical skills. These robots on the big screen manifest something of what it may be like in the workplace of the future when humanity works side-by-side with robots. Let&rsquo;s examine a few details of how collaborative robots have entered the workplace, where they are employed, what roles they fulfill and where the greatest developments will be.<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/industrie.40.deep.dive.part.2.datadriven.intelligent.production" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Automation</a> is more easily and quickly introduced to certain tasks. Tasks which can be structured and programmed are the first portions of the workforce and of workplaces to experience the impact of collaborative robotics, these types of tasks include data collecting, data processing, decision making, and manual labor functions.These activities account for a significant portion of what employees currently perform in economically advanced locations. Because of the inherent complexity of automating all tasks, initially, impacts will reside on those roles most easily automated: For example, the relatively simple task of handing a hamburger to a customer will be done by a collaborative robot, while the more complex assembling of the hamburger is left to the human (for now).<h2>Automation elevates factory labor</h2>Collaborative robots will help economies by providing more productivity, however, their potential is only unlocked by the adoption of the technology by their human co-workers. McKinsey Global Institute (MGI) is a think-tank leader that focuses on helping leaders in the commercial, public, and social sectors with the facts and insights on which to base management and policy decisions. MGI estimates that in the next ten years, hundreds of millions of jobs globally will require significant transitions and changes due to the impact of technology.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiAid2V2b2x2ZXItcHJvamVjdC1pbWFnZXMiLCAia2V5IjogImZyb2FsYS8xNjAwODU4NjkyNzc1LTA3MDIgKDEpLmpwZyIsICJlZGl0cyI6IHsicmVzaXplIjogeyJ3aWR0aCI6IDk1MCwgImZpdCI6ICJjb3ZlciJ9fX0=">Humans and robot collaboration will increase. Image:&nbsp;<a href="https://roboticsandautomationnews.com/2019/10/09/bwindustrie-installs-worlds-first-ur16e-collaborative-robot-to-optimise-throughput/26214/" target="_blank">Robotics&amp;Automation News</a>The arrival of advanced automation, artificial intelligence (AI), and collaborative robots, as previously mentioned, will impact some job sectors more intensely than others. Jobs with a focus on manual labor are the most vulnerable to a full automation takeover. However, many physically focussed jobs will have their tasks augmented by the arrival of precise and data-driven cobots.There has been much speculation around the possibility of automation negatively affecting populations with low education levels. However, the exact impact of automation on jobs typically requiring lower education levels is yet to be determined as automation on a global scale unrolls. It is possible that instead of absolute replacement of human workforces, the rise of automation will prompt an increase of upskilling and re-education to the manual focussed workforce to allow them to work closely with cobots and fulfil roles in programming, maintenance and management. However, there is no doubt that automation will cause an increased demand in advanced degrees in technology, automation, software, and AI.<iframe allowfullscreen="" class="fr-draggable" frameborder="0" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/ftuERPCNMQE?list=PLBFFfxVbvpNQng_kdYlsP1e0X4niEyie1&enablejsapi=1&origin=https://www.wevolver.com" style="width: 739px; height: 457px;" data-gtm-yt-inspected-8="true" data-lf-form-tracking-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-yt-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-vimeo-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true"></iframe> <h1>Workforce Impacts</h1>Acknowledging the potential for market economics, through the supply and demand curve, to produce a potential oversupply of people available for physical labor roles that could then result in lower real wages paid out is important when considering the overall workplace impacts of automation. For automation to be fully embraced it&rsquo;s imperative to find ways for people to &ldquo;slide&rdquo; over into new roles that add value to an enterprise. Cobots that can be operated with and programmed and maintained by existing workforces will likely be the most appealing to companies ready to automate their production lines.The <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/industrie.40.deep.dive.part.5.flexible.manufacturing" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">future of manufacturing&nbsp;</a>will rely on machines doing physical activities while future workers will focus on applying, communicating, coordinating, and managing work processes. Skills such as emotional intelligence and social intelligence will increasingly be required. The ability to combine creativity with ingenious logical reasoning will be highly valued.This article was originally written by Paul Golata for Mouser and substantially edited by the Wevolver team. It&#39;s the final article of a eight part series exploring collaborative robots.&nbsp;Article One&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/what-is-a-collaborative-robot" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">introduces collaborative robots.</a>Article Two&nbsp;describes&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/a-history-of-industrial-robots" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">the history of Industrial Robots.</a>Article Three&nbsp;gives an&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/the-complexities-of-mimicking-humans-is-just-the-beginning" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">overview of collaborative robots sensor technologies.</a>Article Four&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/designing-collaborative-robots-maximizing-productivity-and-safety" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">examines the balance between cobot safety and productivity.</a>Article Five <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/technologies-converge-to-help-drive-manufacturing-applications" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">discusses the development of cobot applications in manufacturing.&nbsp;</a>Article Six&nbsp;explores the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/programmable-versus-fixed-function-controllers-alternatives-for-complex-robotic-motion" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">challenges of motion control of robotic arms.</a>Article Seven l<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/cobots-are-collaborators-ai-will-make-them-partners" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">ooks at the potential of AI in cobots.</a><h1>About the sponsor: Mouser Electronics</h1><a href="https://www.mouser.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Mouser Electronics</a>&nbsp;is a worldwide leading authorized distributor of semiconductors and electronic components for over 800 industry-leading manufacturers. They specialize in the rapid introduction of new products and technologies for design engineers and buyers. Their extensive product offering includes semiconductors, interconnects, passives, and electromechanical components.&nbsp;<img class="fr-fic fr-dib" src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiAid2V2b2x2ZXItcHJvamVjdC1pbWFnZXMiLCAia2V5IjogImZyb2FsYS8xNjAwODYxODIzNzEzLW1vdXNlciBsb2dvIGZvb3Rlci5qcGciLCAiZWRpdHMiOiB7InJlc2l6ZSI6IHsid2lkdGgiOiA5NTAsICJmaXQiOiAiY292ZXIifX19" style="width: 788px;">

Article 8 of our Cobot Series:  Collaborative robots, working to deliver goods and services, will soon be in habitual contact with humanity, and their impact will revolutionize the workplace.

Social Impact of Robotics in the Workplace: The Arrival of the Perfect Coworker

This is the fifth article of an&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/what-is-a-collaborative-robot" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">eight-part series</a>&nbsp;that explores how collaborative robots or cobots are transforming industrial workspaces. It will survey the technologies that have converged to make robotic influence possible, unpack the unique engineering challenges robotics pose, and describe the solutions that are leading the way to the influential robots of the future.The articles were originally published in an e-magazine, and have been substantially edited by Wevolver to update them and make them available on the Wevolver platform. This series is sponsored by Mouser, an online distributor of electronic components. Through their sponsorship,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.mouser.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Mouser Electronics</a>&nbsp;supports spreading knowledge about collaborative robots.<h1>Introduction</h1>A new generation of robots, termed &ldquo;collaborative robots&rdquo; or &ldquo;cobots,&rdquo; is now being integrated into manufacturing environments. Rather than being used to replace human labor, these robots are being used to work together with humans in a common workspace. These cobots are typically used on tasks that require improved process control and/or greater flexibility, scalability, and agility. To enable cobots to work together with the human workforce, numerous improvements have been incorporated to enhance worker safety. The result is increased productivity and better labor utilization at lower overall costs. Consequently, these cobots are affordable for small- and medium-sized companies to support lower-speed, lower-volume production runs. This article examines some of the technological advancements that enable collaborative robotics and provides some examples of how these cobots are being used in a<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/industrie.40.deep.dive.part.5.flexible.manufacturing" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">&nbsp;manufacturing environment.</a><h1>Enabling Technologies</h1>Collaborative robotic platforms incorporate numerous enabling technologies that differentiate them from traditional robots and enhance human/robotic interaction, improve worker safety, and reduce costs. Improvements in sensor, actuator, control, and computation technologies empower the<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/the-complexities-of-mimicking-humans-is-just-the-beginning" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">&nbsp;cobot&rsquo;s perception</a>, data fusion and processing, artificial intelligence, and actuation. Other technologies promote ease of use, adaptability, and lower costs. A brief overview of some of these technologies follows:<h2>Perception</h2>Technologies that improve perception include sensors that can detect and measure any physical property, such as distance, proximity, force, torque, velocity, sound, vibration, volume, weight, surface finish, texture, chemical composition, temperature, electrical current, and magnetism. Other technologies, such as machine vision, allow the cobot to detect and identify objects, spaces, scenes, orientations, and locations of objects in the visible, infrared, and ultraviolet wavelengths. Together, these perception technologies allow improved accuracy, higher throughput, collision avoidance, and situational awareness. Voice recognition and motion tracking technologies may also allow operators to control the cobot through voice commands and hand gestures.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiAid2V2b2x2ZXItcHJvamVjdC1pbWFnZXMiLCAia2V5IjogImZyb2FsYS8xNTk5MDM0MTY5Mjk4LXNpY2suanBnIiwgImVkaXRzIjogeyJyZXNpemUiOiB7IndpZHRoIjogOTUwLCAiZml0IjogImNvdmVyIn19fQ==">Cobots can be equipped with a variety of sensors. Image:&nbsp;<a href="https://www.sick.com/at/en/the-new-mobility-how-sensors-control-the-cobots-of-the-future/w/blog-sensors-cobots/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Sick</a><h2>Data Fusion and Processing</h2>Raw data from numerous sensors must be integrated, processed, and interpreted to enable the cobot to make informed and accurate deductions about the environment so that appropriate actions can be taken. This must be rapidly accomplished to avoid undue delays in the robot&rsquo;s operation, especially if the robot needs to interrupt its operation to avoid a collision with an object or human. Sensor-fusion algorithms must effectively integrate data from different types of sensors, which may come from different locations within the workspace or may be sensed at different times to make informed and accurate deductions about the environment and situation.<h2>Artificial Intelligence</h2>A traditional robot operates according to preprogramed instructions that are repeated without regard to changes in its operational environment. A cobot, on the other hand, incorporates <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/industrie.40.deep.dive.part.1.introducing.smart.manufacturing" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">artificial intelligence (AI)</a>, which encompasses its ability to perceive its environment; reason and solve problems; recognize, learn, and adapt to new situations and environments; autonomously make decisions; and interact with humans. The &ldquo;programming&rdquo; of a cobot to operate in a new environment is not necessarily complicated and can simply involve a human operator manually walking through the desired motion by moving the cobot&rsquo;s arms through the desired trajectory. AI is enabled through high-speed computer processors and software that may incorporate a variety of technologies such as fuzzy logic, probabilistic methods, neural networks, and expert systems. These technologies provide cobots with human-like qualities that promote human-robot interaction and collaboration.<h2>Actuators</h2>While traditional robots have very stiff joints with high force, high torque actuation devices, cobots have compliant joints that can provide smooth or soft motions and forces, so they may seamlessly interact with their human counterparts. Compliant actuators do not require expensive, high-precision drive mechanisms or motion sensors, as they rely on force or current feedback to compensate for potential errors in position accuracy. Furthermore, since cobots are lighter and designed to work with humans in a shared workspace, they do not need the expensive high-force actuation devices or motor drives that are commonly used in traditional robots.<h1>Applications</h1>New applications for collaborative robotics within manufacturing continue to develop and expand. Because cobots are affordable, highly adaptable, and almost plug-and-play capable, small- and medium-sized manufacturers are eager to take on this technology. Some of these notable applications include the following:<h2>Machine Tending</h2>A typical production machine, such as the kind used for computer numerical control (CNC) machining, must continuously be tended by an operator who will load raw material, start the machine, ensure its proper operation, and unload finished parts. Machine tending is one of the most common industrial jobs. Often monotonous and boring, it does not require a high skill level, and operators are prone to injury due to the repetitive lifting of heavy materials and parts. Other examples of machine tending operations include traditional machining operations (e.g., stamping, grinding, trimming, and welding), injection molding, printed circuit board (PCB) testing, part inspecting, and coordinate measuring.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiAid2V2b2x2ZXItcHJvamVjdC1pbWFnZXMiLCAia2V5IjogImZyb2FsYS8xNTk5MDM0MzM5MTU5LTA0MDIgKDEpLnBuZyIsICJlZGl0cyI6IHsicmVzaXplIjogeyJ3aWR0aCI6IDk1MCwgImZpdCI6ICJjb3ZlciJ9fX0=">A cobot tending a CNC machine. Image:&nbsp;<a href="http://www.robotiq.com" target="_blank">Robotiq</a>Cobots may be an ideal fit for machine tending applications. They can be placed in front of a traditional manufacturing machine and easily programmed to perform the required loading and unloading tasks. Periodically, skilled technicians can examine the machine and tools and perform regular maintenance. This can lead to better workforce utilization, where the cobots are used for the lower-skill-level manual operations and technicians are used for the higher-skill-level tasks such as inspecting, repairing, and changing tools, performing quality control tests, and taking appropriate corrective actions. This, in turn, can result in significant labor savings, lower injury rates, less production downtime, a more motivated and skilled workforce, and higher productivity.<h2>Packaging and Palletizing</h2>Packaging and palletizing tasks typically involve the removal of products from an assembly line or conveyor belt, counting and wrapping them appropriately, applying labels, placing them into cartons, and sealing the cartons. High-speed, high-volume manufacturers can create specialized robotic machines and equipment for packaging. On the other hand, small to medium companies may still require manual packaging operations since automated equipment may not be cost-effective due to limited production runs or variations in product form factors.Cobots may be an ideal fit for such packaging and palletizing applications. They can be easily programmed to recognize and count items on a conveyor belt, apply packaging materials and labels, and place them into the appropriate cartons. Human workers can still work with the cobots while performing higher-skill-level tasks such as quality-control inspections. Programming for the cobot can be easily modified to adapt to changes in the product configuration or packaging requirements.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiAid2V2b2x2ZXItcHJvamVjdC1pbWFnZXMiLCAia2V5IjogImZyb2FsYS8xNTk5MDM0NDAwNDM3LTA0MDMgKDEpLmpwZyIsICJlZGl0cyI6IHsicmVzaXplIjogeyJ3aWR0aCI6IDk1MCwgImZpdCI6ICJjb3ZlciJ9fX0=">Cobot in packaging application. Image:&nbsp;<a href="http://www.robotiq.com" target="_blank">Robotiq</a><h2>Collaborative or Adaptive Assembly</h2>Traditional (pick and place) robots require the precise location of the unfinished assemblies and parts. Cobots, on the other hand, are adaptable to non-precise placement, as they might incorporate vision systems that facilitate position feedback. A collaborative or adaptive assembly operation may involve use of a human operator to first inspect, sort, and select a particular part then roughly align the part onto an unfinished assembly (that is, a work-in-progress). In a subsequent assembly step, a cobot would complete the assembly by fastening the part to the unfinished assembly. An operation such as this might be advantageous in situations where parts are too small to align with unaided human vision; or where the final alignment and attachment of the part requires a great deal of dexterity or strength; or where final assembly must be performed at high temperatures, in a difficult environment, or with hazardous chemicals or adhesives. A cobot would, therefore, be useful if the location, orientation, or placement of parts onto an unfinished assembly is not accurate or repeatable.<h2>Human Augmentation</h2>Collaborative robots can be used to augment human capabilities during manufacturing and assembly operations by assisting in the performance of menial (repetitive) tasks or tasks that require strength or extended reach. For example, certain manufacturing operations might require lifting and positioning a heavy part, like an automobile door, onto an unfinished assembly, like an automobile body. Such a process might not lend itself to a completely automated operation if it requires fine adjustments to the part position to ensure the part properly fits onto the unfinished assembly. For example, in an automobile assembly operation, different vehicle styles might require varying amounts and styles of doors for installation, which may not be a suitable situation for a completely automated process. However, a cobot can be useful in this situation to lift the heavy part. It could then carry out &ldquo;instructions&rdquo; from the human operator by responding to the operator&rsquo;s touch and move to position the part on the desired location of the unfinished assembly.<h1>Conclusion</h1>These are only a few examples that illustrate the role of collaborative robotics in manufacturing. As enabling robotic technologies in the areas of sensors, actuators, controls, and computation continue to evolve, we expect that more and more manufacturers will continue to adopt collaborative robotic systems into their workplaces. What might the eventual role of cobots be in manufacturing environments? The advancement in its technology and applications continue to unfold.This article was originally written by Phi Hipol for Mouser and substantially edited by the Wevolver team. It&#39;s the fifth article of a series exploring collaborative robots.&nbsp;Article One&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/what-is-a-collaborative-robot" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">introduces collaborative robots.</a>Article Two&nbsp;describes&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/a-history-of-industrial-robots" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">the history of Industrial Robots.</a>Article Three&nbsp;gives an&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/the-complexities-of-mimicking-humans-is-just-the-beginning" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">overview of collaborative robots sensor technologies.</a>Article Four&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/designing-collaborative-robots-maximizing-productivity-and-safety" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">examines the balance between cobot safety and productivity.</a>Article Six&nbsp;explores the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/programmable-versus-fixed-function-controllers-alternatives-for-complex-robotic-motion" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">challenges of motion control of robotic arms.</a>Article Seven l<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/cobots-are-collaborators-ai-will-make-them-partners" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">ooks at the potential of AI in cobots.</a>Article Eight&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/social-impact-of-robotics-in-the-workplace-the-arrival-of-the-perfect-coworker" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">discusses the social impact of cobots.</a><hr><h1>About the sponsor: Mouser Electronics</h1><a href="https://www.mouser.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Mouser Electronics</a>&nbsp;is a worldwide leading authorized distributor of semiconductors and electronic components for over 800 industry-leading manufacturers. They specialize in the rapid introduction of new products and technologies for design engineers and buyers. Their extensive product offering includes semiconductors, interconnects, passives, and electromechanical components.<img class="fr-fic fr-dii" src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1685445472729-1685445472729.png">

Article 5 of our Cobot Series: Traditionally, robotics have served limited roles in manufacturing environments; however, various technologies have converged to make robots work well as collaborators with humans and to succeed in various applications.

Technologies Converge to Help Drive Manufacturing Applications

This is the sixth article of an&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/what-is-a-collaborative-robot" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">eight-part series</a>&nbsp;that explores how collaborative robots or cobots are transforming industrial workspaces. It will survey the technologies that have converged to make robotic influence possible, unpack the unique engineering challenges robotics pose, and describe the solutions that are leading the way to the influential robots of the future.The articles were originally published in an e-magazine, and have been substantially edited by Wevolver to update them and make them available on the Wevolver platform. This series is sponsored by Mouser, an online distributor of electronic components. Through their sponsorship,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.mouser.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Mouser Electronics</a>&nbsp;supports spreading knowledge about collaborative robots.<h1>Introduction</h1>Motion control of today&#39;s sophisticated robotic arms, regardless of their size or power, often requires simultaneous management of multiple axes. Modern electronics&mdash;including motors, device drivers, control systems (formerly all analog, but now digital), feedback sensors, and power-switching devices such as metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) and insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs)&mdash;now make achieving precise motion control easier than it was just a few years ago. At the same time, however, the demands on system performance have increased dramatically, so the overall project of implementing motion control is as difficult as ever.Nonetheless, there&#39;s one unavoidable fact: <a href="http://www.mouser.com/applications/robotics-technology/" target="_blank">Robotics</a> is largely a mechanical function, so in reality mechanical systems must be configured into the control loop. These systems include gear backlash, mechanical tolerances, vibration, motor performance, mass inertia rotation, momentum, mechanical structure flexibility, variable loads, and more. For these reasons, it&rsquo;s important to choose the type of motor that best suits the robotic operation you&rsquo;re trying to achieve&mdash;usually the best choice is a <a href="http://www.mouser.com/applications/motor-control/" target="_blank">brushless DC motor</a> or stepper motor in low to moderate power situations.Another vital decision relates to sensor-based feedback. Most robotic applications use some type of feedback sensor to accurately gauge the end-effector&#39;s position and thus its velocity and acceleration (recall that velocity is the time integral of position, and acceleration is the time integral of velocity). This feedback transducer can be a Hall-effect sensor, a synchro/resolver, or an optical encoder. While it&rsquo;s easiest to put the encoder on the motor, because of the mechanical issues noted above, placing it there may not produce sufficiently accurate data about the end-effector&#39;s actual situation for the application. Therefore, the sensor may need to be mounted closer to the load endpoint.Some motion-control applications operate without a sensor, which reduces the cost and mechanical complexity. Rather than using a sensor for feedback, sensorless field-oriented control (FOC, also called vector control) uses precise, synchronized readings of the current and voltage at each phase of the motor windings; FOCs then perform complicated frame-of-reference transformations and matrix calculations in real time to determine a motor&#39;s position. Eliminating the sensor reduces the hardware cost, but it necessitates significant computational capability and more complex programming. Many robotic designs still prefer to use sensors because FOC doesn&rsquo;t provide the same level of confidence, credibility, and robustness that using a direct-sensor readout offers.<h1>Understanding Basic Robotic Configurations</h1>While the general public may associate the term &quot;robot&quot; with a mobile, lifelike servant or assistant, most robotic systems in the industrial domain are stationary and use a variety of mechanical arms and configurations to perform tasks. Among the most common arrangements are:The Cartesian robot, which has three linear motion axes, one for each of the x-, y-, and z-planes. This robot is used for pick and place machine operations, sealant applications, and basic assemblies.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiAid2V2b2x2ZXItcHJvamVjdC1pbWFnZXMiLCAia2V5IjogImZyb2FsYS8xNTk5NDcwNDc4NjIwLWNhcnRlc2lhbi5wbmciLCAiZWRpdHMiOiB7InJlc2l6ZSI6IHsid2lkdGgiOiA5NTAsICJmaXQiOiAiY292ZXIifX19">Figure 1: The Cartesian robot is the easiest to comprehend and control because it has the simplest &nbsp;equations and works in the x-, y-, and z-planes. Image: MachineDesignIn a cylindrical robot, all motion is confined to a cylinder-shaped zone. It combines linear motion in the y-plane, linear motion in the z-plane, and rotational motion around the z-axis. This robotic arrangement is used for assembly, tool handling, and spot welding.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiAid2V2b2x2ZXItcHJvamVjdC1pbWFnZXMiLCAia2V5IjogImZyb2FsYS8xNTk5NDcxNDg4OTMwLUlMTFVTVFJBVElPTiAxNSAtMDEtMDEgY3JvcHBlZC5qcGciLCAiZWRpdHMiOiB7InJlc2l6ZSI6IHsid2lkdGgiOiA5NTAsICJmaXQiOiAiY292ZXIifX19">Figure 2: The cylindrical robot has motion along two linear axes and around one rotational axisThe spherical or polar robot combines two rotary joints and one linear joint, and the arm is connected to the base with a twisting joint (Figure 3). Its motion is defined by a polar coordinates system and confined to a spherical zone. This robot is found in welding, casting, and tool-handling applications.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiAid2V2b2x2ZXItcHJvamVjdC1pbWFnZXMiLCAia2V5IjogImZyb2FsYS8xNTk5NDcxNjU5NTk3LUlMTFVTVFJBVElPTiAxNyBGaW5hbC0wMSBjcm9wcGVkLmpwZyIsICJlZGl0cyI6IHsicmVzaXplIjogeyJ3aWR0aCI6IDk1MCwgImZpdCI6ICJjb3ZlciJ9fX0=">Figure 3: The spherical or polar robot combines motion around two rotary axes and along one linear axis, and it requires numerous calculation-intensive transformations between coordinate frames of referenceThe robotic approaches cited here offer three degrees of freedom, using a combination of linear and rotary motion. However, some applications need only one or two degrees. More advanced robotic arms, or articulated robots, combine additional linear and rotary motion for almost human-like dexterity and flexibility (Figure 4). Some high-tech arms provide six, eight, or even more degrees of freedom.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiAid2V2b2x2ZXItcHJvamVjdC1pbWFnZXMiLCAia2V5IjogImZyb2FsYS8xNTk5NDcyNDYzODExLUlMTFVTVFJBVElPTiAyMCBGaW5hbC0wMSBjcm9wcGVkLmpwZyIsICJlZGl0cyI6IHsicmVzaXplIjogeyJ3aWR0aCI6IDk1MCwgImZpdCI6ICJjb3ZlciJ9fX0=">Figure 4: The articulated robotic arm combines multiple rotation and linear motion modes for many&nbsp; degrees of freedom, but it also requires careful coordination among the actuators and arms.Other designs use special combinations of linear and rotary motion for application-specific situations, such as the parallelogram implementation, an implementation used for precise and rapid motion over short distances (for example, to pick and place tiny components). As the number of degrees of freedom increases, achieving rapid, smooth, accurate, and synchronized control along each of these degrees grows exponentially more challenging.<h1>Considering Trajectory Profiles</h1>The motion-control objective in robotics seems simple enough: Have the end-effector optimally reach its target position as quickly and accurately as possible with the supported load. Of course, there are trade-offs involved, as in all engineering decisions, depending on the priorities associated with the optimum result in the given application.For example, is it acceptable to accelerate and decelerate quickly to rapidly reach a higher velocity if the result is overshot and if there is even possible oscillation at the endpoint? Is it worth trading accuracy for speed, and to what extent? How are the choices of acceleration, velocity, and position related to the desired transition from position A to position B? What are the priorities and parameters that define &quot;optimum&quot; in a particular application?Specialists in motion control for robotics and other motion applications have developed standard trajectory profiles that provide various ways to implement the desired trade-off solution for a given application. All choices involve significant real-time calculations based on the present situation and feedback signal, but some impose a more substantial, high-resolution computational burden. These profiles include:<ul><li>The simple trapezoid, where the motor accelerates at a fixed rate from zero to a target velocity, stays at that velocity, and then ramps down at a fixed rate to zero velocity at the desired position (Figure 5). Higher rates might speed up the entire positioning cycle, but they might also induce sudden changes in acceleration motion (called the jerk) that, in turn, adds inaccuracy and overshoot.</li></ul><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiAid2V2b2x2ZXItcHJvamVjdC1pbWFnZXMiLCAia2V5IjogImZyb2FsYS8xNTk5NDczMTM5Mzc1LUlMTFVTVFJBVElPTiAxNiBGaW5hbC0wMSBjcm9wcGVkLmpwZyIsICJlZGl0cyI6IHsicmVzaXplIjogeyJ3aWR0aCI6IDk1MCwgImZpdCI6ICJjb3ZlciJ9fX0=">Image 5: The simplest motion-trajectory profile is the trapezoid, which has constant acceleration to the target velocity, constant path velocity, and constant deceleration between the start and endpoints.<ul><li>The S-curve, a frequently-used enhancement to the trapezoid, where the acceleration rate ramps up from zero then decreases as the target velocity is achieved (Figure 6). As the target position is reached, the deceleration rate is ramped up and then reduced as the endpoint is near. The S-curve has seven distinct phases, in contrast to the three phases of the trapezoid.</li></ul><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiAid2V2b2x2ZXItcHJvamVjdC1pbWFnZXMiLCAia2V5IjogImZyb2FsYS8xNTk5NDczNjMyOTc3LUlMTFVTVFJBVElPTiAxOCBGaW5hbC0wMS5qcGciLCAiZWRpdHMiOiB7InJlc2l6ZSI6IHsid2lkdGgiOiA5NTAsICJmaXQiOiAiY292ZXIifX19">Figures 6: S-curve path is more complicated than the basic trapezoid, but it eases the jerk (change in acceleration) at each transition point of the path.<ul><li>The&nbsp;contoured motion, where the user establishes a set of desired positions, and the motion controller directs a smooth, jerk-free transition profile through all these positions (Figure 7). This allows the ultimate flexibility and control, which is necessary for advanced-motion situations. The required control-direction calculations to achieve smooth curve-fitting are complex and must be accomplished without the loss of resolution due to rounding or truncating errors, despite the many calculations.</li></ul><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiAid2V2b2x2ZXItcHJvamVjdC1pbWFnZXMiLCAia2V5IjogImZyb2FsYS8xNTk5NDczNzk3MjU0LUlMTFVTVFJBVElPTiAxOSBGaW5hbC0wMSBjcm9wcGVkLmpwZyIsICJlZGl0cyI6IHsicmVzaXplIjogeyJ3aWR0aCI6IDk1MCwgImZpdCI6ICJjb3ZlciJ9fX0=">Figure 7: The contoured-motion path allows the user to define a series of position-marker points between the start and endpoints, and the controller must guide the end-effector through these points in a smooth curve.There are other profiles in use, some of which are associated with specific application groups or industries. Regardless of the desired profile, it&#39;s one thing to want it and another to make it happen. The well-known, highly effective proportional-integral-derivative (PID), closed-loop, control algorithm is the most common approach used to drive a motor and end-effector to do what one desires with a high-enough-level of accuracy and precision.<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/designing-collaborative-robots-maximizing-productivity-and-safety" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Effective control</a> of a single axis is a manageable project, but robotic control becomes far more difficult when this control extends to two, three, or even more motors and degrees of freedom, which must be closely coordinated and synchronized, with the performance one element dependent on the status of the others.<h1>Determining Standard versus Custom Motion-Control Applications</h1>For standard motion-control applications, a dedicated, fixed-function, embedded controller integrated circuit (IC) offers ease of use and rapid time-to-market. In contrast, if a nonstandard, customized profile is necessary or if the correlation between the various axes is complicated and must accommodate unusual or unique events, then the Design team may consider a fully user-programmable processor. This solution is implemented using a processor with digital-signal processor (DSP) capabilities for the computation-intensive aspects or with a field-programmable gate array (FPGA). When considering programmable devices, the vendor, third-party tools, and available software modules are factors of importance in addition to the hardware functions of the IC itself in making a specific selection.Be aware that these controllers are generally not the same as motor drivers, which are the MOSFET/IGBT drivers and devices that control motor power. This is the case for two reasons: First, these power devices must be sized to the motor, independent of the controller. Second, the high-density, complementary, metal-oxide-semiconductor-based process technologies used for these digital controllers are very different than the processes for power devices. For smaller motors, however, it is possible to integrate a controller with a driver and power device. Despite the fundamental differences, the term &quot;controller&quot; often refers to the power-device functional blocks, which can lead to confusion in keyword searches.<h1>Conclusion</h1>Motion-control options for robotics range from basic, dedicated-function ICs to highly integrated, extremely flexible microcontroller units (MCUs) with a large array of auxiliary-processing and support functions. Although embedded devices may seem limiting, some of them allow a selection of a variety of motion profiles and the setting of critical parameters, and they are quite adequate, low in cost, and easy to use. For advanced designs with unique or extremely sophisticated requirements or for designs needing additional levels of connectivity along with control, MCUs offer effective solutions with evaluation and development kits supported by verified code packages, debug and code-development tools, and validation suites.This article was originally written by Bill Schweber for Mouser and substantially edited by the Wevolver team. It&#39;s the sixth article of a series exploring collaborative robots.&nbsp;Article One&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/what-is-a-collaborative-robot" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">introduces collaborative robots.</a>Article Two&nbsp;describes&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/a-history-of-industrial-robots" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">the history of Industrial Robots.</a>Article Three&nbsp;gives an&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/the-complexities-of-mimicking-humans-is-just-the-beginning" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">overview of collaborative robots sensor technologies.</a>Article Four&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/designing-collaborative-robots-maximizing-productivity-and-safety" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">examines the balance between cobot safety and productivity.</a>Article Five <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/technologies-converge-to-help-drive-manufacturing-applications" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">discusses the development of cobot applications in manufacturing.&nbsp;</a>Article Seven l<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/cobots-are-collaborators-ai-will-make-them-partners" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">ooks at the potential of AI in cobots.</a>Article Eight&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/social-impact-of-robotics-in-the-workplace-the-arrival-of-the-perfect-coworker" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">discusses the social impact of cobots.</a><hr><h1>About the sponsor: Mouser Electronics</h1><a href="https://www.mouser.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Mouser Electronics</a>&nbsp;is a worldwide leading authorized distributor of semiconductors and electronic components for over 800 industry-leading manufacturers. They specialize in the rapid introduction of new products and technologies for design engineers and buyers. Their extensive product offering includes semiconductors, interconnects, passives, and electromechanical components.<img class="fr-fic fr-dib" src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiAid2V2b2x2ZXItcHJvamVjdC1pbWFnZXMiLCAia2V5IjogImZyb2FsYS8xNjAwODYzNDkxOTQ3LW1vdXNlciBsb2dvIGZvb3Rlci5qcGciLCAiZWRpdHMiOiB7InJlc2l6ZSI6IHsid2lkdGgiOiA5NTAsICJmaXQiOiAiY292ZXIifX19" style="width: 788px;">

Article 6 of our Cobot Series: Motion control of today's sophisticated robotic arms is as difficult as ever.

Programmable Versus Fixed-Function Controllers: Alternatives for Complex Robotic Motion

Article 4 of our Cobot Series: Collaborative robots are becoming invaluable for industry, as they improve safety and increase productivity, but there are still improvements to be made in design and regulation.

Designing Collaborative Robots: Maximizing Productivity and Safety

This is the third article of an&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/what-is-a-collaborative-robot" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">eight-part series</a>&nbsp;that explores how collaborative robots or cobots are transforming industrial workspaces. It will survey the technologies that have converged to make robotic influence possible, unpack the unique engineering challenges robotics pose, and describe the solutions that are leading the way to the influential robots of the future.The articles were originally published in an e-magazine, and have been substantially edited by Wevolver to update them and make them available on the Wevolver platform. This series is sponsored by Mouser, an online distributor of electronic components. Through their sponsorship,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/profile/mouser.electronics" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Mouser Electronics</a>&nbsp;supports spreading knowledge about collaborative robots.<h1>Complex Sensing Requirements</h1>Developing collaborative robots requires creating many complex systems to sense, communicate, and move alongside humans safely and effectively. To assist humans, cobots use a combination of technologies that mimics the basic human senses of sight/vision, hearing, taste, and smell, to complete its tasks and understand its environment. Additionally, cobots must communicate and move, requiring yet another set of systems with which to talk, understand, and assist their human co-workers.<h2>Sensing Their Environment: Exteroception</h2>To be useful to humans, cobots must have a range of environmental sensors to perform their tasks and stay out of trouble. These sensors belong to the realm of exteroception&mdash;that is, sensitivity to stimuli outside of the body. Common exteroceptive sensors in cobots include vision, hearing, touch, smell, taste, temperature, acceleration, range finding, and more.<h2>Sensing Their Internal State: Interoception</h2>To be self-maintaining, robots must also be able to know their internal state. This corresponds to interoception in humans, or the ability to perceive innate statuses of the body like digestion, breathing, and fatigue. For example, a cobot must know when its batteries need charging and reactively go seek a charger. Another example is a cobot&rsquo;s ability to sense heat when its internal thermal temperature is too high to work next to humans. Other interoception examples involve optical and haptic mechanisms, which we&rsquo;ll cover later in this article.<h2>Sensing Their Relative Position: Proprioception</h2>Awareness of the external and internal is critical for the operation and maintenance of a cobot, but to be useful to humans most cobots must also have proprioception. It is proprioception that allows the human body to move and control limbs without looking at them, thanks to interactions and interpretations from the brain.In humans, this results in an awareness of the relative position of human body parts and the strength and effort necessary for motion. Human proprioceptors consist of muscles, tendons, and joints. In cobots, the functions of proprioceptors are mimicked mostly by electromechanical actuators and motors. Proprioceptive measures consist of joint positions, joint velocities, and motor torques.<iframe allowfullscreen="" class="fr-draggable" frameborder="0" height="720" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/B9ex-ZcZjDI?enablejsapi=1&origin=https://www.wevolver.com" width="1280" data-gtm-yt-inspected-8="true" data-lf-form-tracking-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-yt-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-vimeo-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true"></iframe><h2>Communicating with Humans</h2>Voice and motion are not senses but are necessary for humans and robots to communicate and perform tasks. Voice communication is needed by cobots to clarify what is heard and to alert humans to potential dangers. Speech synthesizing hardware and software are used to artificially reproduce human speech.Today, artificial intelligence (AI) is beginning to enable actual conversations between humans and cobots. Robots can understand the nuances in human speech, such as chatting, half-phrases, laughter, and even when noncommittal responses like &ldquo;uh huh&rdquo; are uttered. Sharing resources, like conversational floors, is another concept that robots are learning. To prevent talking over one another, robots are taught that only one person can &ldquo;seize the floor&rdquo; and talk at a time.<h1>Complexities of Collaboration</h1>Humans use a combination of senses to move, operate, and communicate. One common example is body language through hand gestures that is accompanied by voice commands. For cobots, this type of collaboration requires vision for gesture recognition, speech recognition to perceive commands, and some level of AI to interpret the context of human communication.Continuing this point is the example of combined sensory input through vision and haptic (or &ldquo;touch&rdquo;) feedback. Consider the real-world example of a surgeon running a simulation of an operation before the actual event. The simulation can create a virtual reality (VR) where the surgeon can see and test the operation procedure. However, he or she has no way to sense the feeling of the scalpel&rsquo;s contact with human tissue. This is where haptic feedback would help because it mimics the sense of touch and force during a computer simulation.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiAid2V2b2x2ZXItcHJvamVjdC1pbWFnZXMiLCAia2V5IjogImZyb2FsYS8xNTk3MzMxNDM4NzQxLUhhcHRYLUdsb3Zlcy1BdXRvbW90aXZlLmpwZyIsICJlZGl0cyI6IHsicmVzaXplIjogeyJ3aWR0aCI6IDk1MCwgImZpdCI6ICJjb3ZlciJ9fX0=">&nbsp;An example of haptic touch gloves in use with a VR driving simulation. Image:&nbsp;<a href="https://haptx.com/" target="_blank">HaptX</a>How can a machine communicate through touch? The most common form of haptic feedback is accomplished using vibration, such as the feeling created by a shaking, but silent, mobile phone. In the case of the surgeon, a linear actuator might replace a vibration motor. As the surgeon puts pressure on the simulated scalpel, a linear actuator that moves up and down places greater pressure on a portion of his body via a headband. This pressure corresponds to the pressure on the simulated scalpel.In the case of a cobot, a parallel example of haptic feedback is found in the cobot&rsquo;s grippers (or hands). These grippers will often contain a wrist camera for recognition of a grasped object along with force-torque sensors that provide input for a sense of touch.Most workers communicate and control cobots by using buttons, joysticks, keyboards, or digital interfaces However, just as they are for humans, speech and haptics can be effective communication mediums for cobots.Haptics and eye movement are another way sensory combinations can improve interplay between humans and cobots. As humans point toward an object, they first look in the direction of the object. This anticipatory action can be picked up by a cobot&rsquo;s vision to provide a tip-off regarding the intention of the human collaborator. Similarly, technology can help a cobot communicate its intentions to humans. Robots now have projectors that highlight target objects or routes that the cobot will take.<h1>Summary</h1>As with any emerging technology, there are still many challenges that face the world of collaborative robots as they work side-by-side with humans. Will humans sometimes find cobots more frustrating than useful?Today, most robots have gotten pretty good at combining voice and visual recognition to assist humans. However, what is lacking is the cobot&rsquo;s ability to understand context and respond to complex situations. AI will be essential to enable cobots to truly interact, anticipate, and communicate, especially when they need to hand-off certain complex tasks to humans. Among its other abilities, this level of AI will also go some way to build a type of trust between humans and cobots that will further increase the potential of their collaboration.<img class="fr-fic fr-dib" src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiAid2V2b2x2ZXItcHJvamVjdC1pbWFnZXMiLCAia2V5IjogImZyb2FsYS8xNTk3OTA3NDQ5NDY3LUlsbHVzdHJhdGlvbiAyMi0zLTAxLmpwZyIsICJlZGl0cyI6IHsicmVzaXplIjogeyJ3aWR0aCI6IDk1MCwgImZpdCI6ICJjb3ZlciJ9fX0=" style="width: 788px;">This article was originally written by John Blyler for Mouser and substantially edited by the Wevolver team. It&#39;s the third article of a series exploring collaborative robots.&nbsp;Article One&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/what-is-a-collaborative-robot" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">introduces collaborative robots.</a>Article Two&nbsp;describes&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/a-history-of-industrial-robots" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">the history of Industrial Robots.</a>Article Three&nbsp;gives an&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/the-complexities-of-mimicking-humans-is-just-the-beginning" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">overview of collaborative robots sensor technologies.</a>Article Four&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/designing-collaborative-robots-maximizing-productivity-and-safety" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">examines the balance between cobot safety and productivity.</a>Article Five <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/technologies-converge-to-help-drive-manufacturing-applications" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">discusses the development of cobot applications in manufacturing. </a>Article Six&nbsp;explores the <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/programmable-versus-fixed-function-controllers-alternatives-for-complex-robotic-motion" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">challenges of motion control of robotic arms.</a>Article Seven l<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/cobots-are-collaborators-ai-will-make-them-partners" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">ooks at the potential of AI in cobots.</a>Article Eight&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/social-impact-of-robotics-in-the-workplace-the-arrival-of-the-perfect-coworker" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">discusses the social impact of cobots.</a><hr><h1>About the sponsor: Mouser Electronics</h1>Mouser Electronics is a worldwide leading authorized distributor of semiconductors and electronic components for over 800 industry-leading manufacturers. They specialise in the rapid introduction of new products and technologies for design engineers and buyers. Their extensive product offering includes semiconductors, interconnects, passives, and electromechanical components.<img class="fr-fic fr-dii" data-fr-image-pasted="true" src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiAid2V2b2x2ZXItcHJvamVjdC1pbWFnZXMiLCAia2V5IjogImZyb2FsYS8xNTk3MzE0NzU0MjA0LTE1OTczMTQ3NTQyMDQucG5nIiwgImVkaXRzIjogeyJyZXNpemUiOiB7IndpZHRoIjogOTUwLCAiZml0IjogImNvdmVyIn19fQ=="> &nbsp;

Article 3 of our Cobot Series: Advances in sensor technologies have enabled the cobot to sense its environment, internal state, relative position, and more, yet the complexity of human-machine collaboration is a puzzle still unfolding.

The Complexities of Mimicking Humans is Just the Beginning

This is the second article of an&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/what-is-a-collaborative-robot" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">eight-part series</a>&nbsp;that explores how collaborative robots or cobots are transforming industrial workspaces. It will survey the technologies that have converged to make robotic influence possible, unpack the unique engineering challenges robotics pose, and describe the solutions that are leading the way to the influential robots of the future.The articles were originally published in an e-magazine, and have been substantially edited by Wevolver to update them and make them available on the Wevolver platform. This series is sponsored by Mouser, an online distributor of electronic components. Through their sponsorship,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/profile/mouser.electronics" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Mouser Electronics</a>&nbsp;supports spreading knowledge about collaborative robots.<h1>Introduction</h1>In recent decades, as automation has emerged as the central competitive factor in manufacturing operations across the globe, the use of industrial robots has grown substantially. In 1970 the total number of industrial robots in use in the US was 200. By 1980, that number had risen to 4,000, and by 2015, it was 1.6 million. There are estimated to be more than 3 million industrial robots in use today. [1]<h1>Industrial Robotic Beginnings</h1>Industrial robots are often discussed in the context of 21st-century&nbsp;innovations. However, their roots date back much further to the 1950s, when George Devol developed the first industrial robot&mdash;a two-ton device that autonomously transferred objects from one place to another with hydraulic actuators. Since that time, as sensors, electronics, and computer software have advanced, the capabilities of industrial robots have greatly expanded to include complex tasks such as welding, painting, assembly, packaging, palletizing, inspecting, and testing&mdash;all accomplished with speed, precision, and repeatability.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiAid2V2b2x2ZXItcHJvamVjdC1pbWFnZXMiLCAia2V5IjogImZyb2FsYS8xNTk3MzEzNjM5ODY4LTAxMDEuanBnIiwgImVkaXRzIjogeyJyZXNpemUiOiB7IndpZHRoIjogOTUwLCAiZml0IjogImNvdmVyIn19fQ==">Image: Bob MaloneRobots were first used commercially on assembly lines in the early 1960s. Most featured hydraulic or pneumatic arms and were primarily used for heavy lifting. Although the devices were primitive, sensorless, and featured limited programmability, they proved to be an invaluable tool for increasing production in manufacturing facilities and set the stage for what would be a prolonged period of robotics development.Throughout the late 1960s and early 1970s, as the need for automation of manpower-intensive tasks in manufacturing increased, the focus of industrial robotics shifted away from heavy lifting to materials handling and precision work. This gave birth to the development of smaller electric robots with advanced controls, microprocessors, miniaturized motors, gyros, and servos, which made them ideal for lighter assembly tasks, such as bolt and nut tightening.By the late 1970s, the capabilities of robots expanded even further to include tasks such as material transferring, painting, and arc welding. They also began taking over dangerous tasks in manufacturing facilities. In steel mills, for instance, robots were used to move parts and materials in high-temperature environments that were inhospitable for humans. This significantly improved facility safety and drove increased workforce productivity by freeing up skilled labourers to direct their focus to more important manufacturing operations.<h1>Robotic Technology in the 1980s: Laying the Foundation for the Future</h1>The mid-1980s saw increased interest and excitement in robotics. In understanding robots as the &ldquo;machines of the future,&rdquo; engineers began pushing the frontier forward to support industrial development and achieve greater manufacturing competitiveness. It was during this period that the foundation of the present-day industrial robot was laid, as they began incorporating advanced sensors and rudimentary machine vision systems.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiAid2V2b2x2ZXItcHJvamVjdC1pbWFnZXMiLCAia2V5IjogImZyb2FsYS8xNTk3MzE0MTU0ODk1LTAxMDIucG5nIiwgImVkaXRzIjogeyJyZXNpemUiOiB7IndpZHRoIjogOTUwLCAiZml0IjogImNvdmVyIn19fQ==">The Unimate 500 and Puma 560 industrial robots in 1986. Image: Wiki Commons&nbsp;The emergence of these technologies, coupled with a substantial reduction in costs of computer hardware, like microprocessors, resulted in a steep change of advancement in industrial robotic capabilities. Using precision force sensors and lasers, industrial robots were given the ability to detect and follow manufacturing components along assembly lines. These lasers and sensors provided the robots with a human-like sense of sight and touch and revolutionized their interactions with the industrial environment. As a result, robots were transformed from simple mechanical devices that were programmed to perform repetitive tasks to more elaborate machines that possessed what many categorized as &ldquo;limited intelligence.<h1 dir="ltr">Industrial Robots of Today and Tomorrow</h1>Since the early 2000s, developments in industrial robotics have largely been driven by advancements in software. Emerging fields, such as machine learning (ML) and artificial intelligence (AI), are now pushing forward the frontier of what robots can do&mdash;giving them the ability to learn, improve, and make decisions without direction or guidance from humans.Most industrial robots in use today are equipped with a multitude of advanced sensors that gather immense amounts of data. When integrated with advanced analytics and ML software, the robots can interpret this data and use it to adapt, alter mechanical motions, and better complete the task at hand. This quest to provide robots with &ldquo;real intelligence&rdquo; is now the primary focus of robotics engineers.In the coming years, as industrial robots become smarter, they will be able to take on more complex tasks and execute them with an efficiency that far exceeds human capabilities. They will also be able to safely work alongside humans in the manufacturing environment. This is something that is already occurring today with the emergence of <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/industrie.40.deep.dive.part.4.evolving.industrial.robots" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">collaborative robots</a> or cobots.Cobots are a relatively new type of robot designed to safely operate in close proximity or even in direct contact with humans. They utilize advanced technology, including force-limited joints and computer vision to detect the presence of humans in their environment. Cobots are often much smaller and lighter than traditional industrial robots, easily moveable, and trainable to perform specific tasks.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiAid2V2b2x2ZXItcHJvamVjdC1pbWFnZXMiLCAia2V5IjogImZyb2FsYS8xNTk3MzE0MzgxNTY5LTAxMDMucG5nIiwgImVkaXRzIjogeyJyZXNpemUiOiB7IndpZHRoIjogOTUwLCAiZml0IjogImNvdmVyIn19fQ==">A factory worker with cobots. Image: FaudeEarly cobots were passive without their own power source. Human workers provide the force needed to move an object, while the robot-guided its trajectory and eliminated some of the physical strain. Cobots have since rapidly advanced to a point where they can lift and move objects with precision and gather and deliver information about their environment.Together, humans and cobots offer a unique level of skill that neither can offer on their own, which results in manufacturing products far better and faster than would be if either were working without the other. The cobot market is valued at close to $1 billion&mdash;with an estimated 40,000 machines in operation across the globe, according to ABIresearch&reg;.<h1>End of arm tooling</h1>The final and critically important step in industrial robots&#39; ongoing history and development is what is at the end of the robotic arm. End of arm tooling has advanced from basic grippers capable of handling hard materials to soft robotic grippers embedded with sensors that allow the robot to adapt its grip according to the object&#39;s surface material and weight. The development of end of arm tooling plays a key role in the value a robot can bring its end-user and will contribute highly to the wide adoption of industrial robots to new industries.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiAid2V2b2x2ZXItcHJvamVjdC1pbWFnZXMiLCAia2V5IjogImZyb2FsYS8xNTk3MzE1MDU4MTk1LWVuZCBvZiBhcm0gdG9vbGluZy5qcGciLCAiZWRpdHMiOiB7InJlc2l6ZSI6IHsid2lkdGgiOiA5NTAsICJmaXQiOiAiY292ZXIifX19">A soft-actuating robot gripper and a collaborative conveyor system enable safer human-robot interaction. &nbsp;Image: &nbsp;Shuttleworth, LLC/RIA&nbsp;<h1>Conclusion</h1>Industrial robots have come a long way from the hydraulic arms and bolt turners of the 1950s and 1960s. Today, these smart mechanical devices can work safely alongside humans to perform a wide array of complex tasks, such as painting, welding, complex product assembly, and even surgery. In the coming years, as automation continues to drive competition among manufacturers across the globe, the robotics market will continue to expand, and the role robots play to help drive efficiency and throughput within industrial environments will grow in importance.This article was originally written by Alex Misiti for Mouser and substantially edited by the Wevolver team. It&#39;s the second article of a series exploring collaborative robots.&nbsp;Article One&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/what-is-a-collaborative-robot" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">introduces collaborative robots.</a>Article Three&nbsp;gives an&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/the-complexities-of-mimicking-humans-is-just-the-beginning" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">overview of collaborative robots sensor technologies.</a>Article Four&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/designing-collaborative-robots-maximizing-productivity-and-safety" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">examines the balance between cobot safety and productivity.</a>Article Five <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/technologies-converge-to-help-drive-manufacturing-applications" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">discusses the development of cobot applications in manufacturing.&nbsp;</a>Article Six&nbsp;explores the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/programmable-versus-fixed-function-controllers-alternatives-for-complex-robotic-motion" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">challenges of motion control of robotic arms.</a>Article Seven l<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/cobots-are-collaborators-ai-will-make-them-partners" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">ooks at the potential of AI in cobots.</a>Article Eight&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/social-impact-of-robotics-in-the-workplace-the-arrival-of-the-perfect-coworker" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">discusses the social impact of cobots.</a><hr><h1>About the sponsor: Mouser Electronics</h1>Mouser Electronics is a worldwide leading authorized distributor of semiconductors and electronic components for over 800 industry-leading manufacturers. They specialise in the rapid introduction of new products and technologies for design engineers and buyers. Their extensive product offering includes semiconductors, interconnects, passives, and electromechanical components.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjE4NTY0NTcxNzM3LU1vdXNlciBiYW5uZXIgYXJ0aWNsZS5qcGciLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" style="width: 300px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"> <hr><h1>References</h1>1. Industrial Robotics Report [Internet]. International Federation of Robotics; 2019 [cited 29 July 2020]. Available from: <a href="http://ifr.org" target="_blank">http://ifr.org</a>

Article 2 of our Cobot Series: Driven by advances in software, sensors, and electronics, the market for industrial robots has greatly evolved over the past half-century. In today’s industrial workspaces, the evolution continues with collaborative robots—or cobots—working side-by-side with humans.

A History of Industrial Robots

Article 1 of our Cobot Series: Collaborative robots are light, inexpensive industrial robots designed to work closely with humans to bring automation to tasks that had previously been completed solely with manual labor.

What is a Collaborative Robot?

The developments that took industrial robotics from automation to collaboration.

Industry 4.0 Deep Dive. Part 4: Evolving Industrial Robots

Daniel Lofaro talks about how he works hard to make things easier and how co-robotics are the way forward, and how bringing cost down cost and better AI is critical for this.

collaborative robots

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