Sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs) significantly reduce the climate impact of aviation in terms of both its <a href="https://www.dlr.de/content/en/articles/dossier/electric-flight/climate-impact-air-transport.html" id="isPasted" target="_blank" title="One-third CO2 and two-thirds non-CO2 effects">carbon footprint and other climate impact not related to carbon dioxide</a>. In the future, the targeted use of SAFs in contrail regions can help to rapidly reduce the climate impact of air transport. Flight tests using aircraft powered by 100 percent SAF are to take place again in order to prepare for this transition. In the &#39;VOL avec Carburants Alternatifs Nouveaux&#39; (VOLCAN) and the DLR Neofuels project, an Airbus A321neo will use pure SAF in both engines for the first time. The Falcon 20E research aircraft from the German Aerospace Center (Deutsches Zentrum f&uuml;r Luft- und Raumfahrt; DLR) will chase the A321neo and researchers will analyse the emissions and ice crystals in the aircraft&#39;s exhaust plumes. Safran, Dassault Aviation and ONERA are also participating in the project. The research flights will take place from the end of February to the end of March 2023 in specially reserved airspaces off the coast of France.&nbsp;<h2 id="isPasted">A question of condensation</h2>The Airbus A321neo is a modern commercial aircraft equipped with lean-burn engines that enable it to burn kerosene while producing very little soot. &quot;We are particularly interested in how ice crystals form when several orders of magnitude less soot is emitted by the CFM LEAP-1A engines in lean-burn mode,&quot; explains DLR Project Leader Christiane Voigt of the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.dlr.de/pa/en/desktopdefault.aspx/" target="_blank" title="External link DLR Institute of Atmospheric Physics">DLR Institute of Atmospheric Physics</a>. &quot;To do this, we will use the Falcon to conduct emission measurements both in the near field, approximately 100 metres behind the A321neo, as well as in the contrails in the far field at distances of several kilometres.&quot;The researchers are planning approximately 15 joint flights, during which the Falcon 20E will follow the A321neo. Different variants of the sustainable fuel &#39;Hydro-processed Esters and Fatty Acids&#39; (HEFA) will be tested under various modes of engine operation. HEFA is produced from paraffinic hydrocarbons, which are generally derived from used cooking oil and other waste fats, and is free of cyclic hydrocarbons (aromatics) and sulphur. Pure SAFs with no aromatics have several advantages, such as the reduced generation of soot particles during combustion. This can also lead to a reduction in ice crystals that form on the soot. Reducing ice crystals and contrail formation can significantly reduce climate effects, as&nbsp;<a href="https://www.dlr.de/content/en/articles/news/2021/02/20210617_significantly-lower-climate-impact-when-using-sustainable-fuels.html" target="_blank" title="Significantly lower climate impact of contrails when using sustainable fuels">DLR has demonstrated together with NASA</a>.<h2>Flight test research stages</h2>DLR conducted extensive flight tests to characterise the emissions of synthetic fuels as early as 2015 with the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.dlr.de/content/en/articles/news/2021/04/20211129_100-percent-sustainable-fuels-emissions-study-shows-early-promise.html" target="_blank" title="First in-flight 100 percent sustainable-fuels emissions study of passenger jet shows early promise">ECLIF1 campaign</a>. These flight tests were continued in 2018 with the ECLIF2 campaign in collaboration with NASA. During the ECLIF3 campaign 2021 the first emission measurements were conducted during flight tests using 100 percent SAFs on an A350, in collaboration with Airbus and Rolls-Royce.The&nbsp;<a href="https://www.airbus.com/en/newsroom/stories/2021-10-this-a319neo-is-the-latest-to-test-100-saf" target="_blank" title="External link Airbus Newsroom: This A319neo is the latest to test 100% SAF">first test flights of the VOLCAN project</a> with the use of SAFs from the manufacturer Total Energies in one engine took place in 2021. The emission measurements in the VOLCAN project are complemented by ground measurements in which the&nbsp;<a href="http://www.dlr.de/vt/en/" target="_blank" title="External link DLR Institute of Combustion Technology">DLR Institute of Combustion Technology</a> in&nbsp;<a href="https://www.dlr.de/content/en/sites/stuttgart.html" target="_blank" title="Stuttgart">Stuttgart</a> is participating. The Falcon 20E research aircraft is operated by DLR&#39;s&nbsp;<a href="https://www.dlr.de/fb/en/desktopdefault.aspx/" target="_blank" title="External link To the DLR Websie of the Flight Experiments">Flight Experiments facility</a> in&nbsp;<a href="https://www.dlr.de/content/en/sites/oberpfaffenhofen.html" target="_blank" title="Oberpfaffenhofen">Oberpfaffenhofen</a>. The aim of the new experiments is to measure the emissions of lean-burn combustion and to investigate resulting contrail formation. One question is whether other particles also lead to the formation of contrails when soot emissions from lean-burn combustion have already been reduced by orders of magnitude.<h2>The goal &ndash; climate-compatible air transport</h2>The goal is to achieve a climate-neutral economy and society by the middle of this century. The European Green Deal requires a comprehensive commitment to research and development in air transport. To this end, DLR has developed an&nbsp;<a href="https://www.dlr.de/content/en/articles/news/2021/04/20211215_towards-zero-emission-aviation.html" target="_blank" title="Towards zero-emission aviation">aviation strategy</a> that maps out the research path to achieve climate-neutral flight. The goal is highly efficient, climate-friendly aircraft that utilise various new propulsion concepts and sustainable fuels according to their flight range and size. DLR&#39;s whole-system research expertise enables it to adopt the role of virtual manufacturer (virtual OEM) and facilitate an accelerated energy transition in the air transport sector. New technologies and fuels, as well as climate-friendly flight management, are intended to further reduce emissions of carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides and particles by air transport and decouple them from the predicted growth. SAFs, in combination with highly efficient turbofan engines, will play a key role here, particularly for long and medium-haul flights.

View of the Air­bus A321neo from the DLR Fal­con 20E. Credit: DLR (CC BY-NC-ND 3.0)

Sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs) significantly reduce the climate impact of aviation in terms of both its carbon footprint and other climate impact not related to carbon dioxide. In the future, the targeted use of SAFs in contrail regions can help to rapidly reduce the climate impact of air transport. Flight tests using aircraft powered by 100 percent SAF are to take place again in order to prepare for this transition.

Emissions and contrail study with 100 percent sustainable aviation fuel

The Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) is funding the international research project CARE-O-SENE (Catalyst Research for Sustainable Kerosene) with 30 million euros. It aims to improve the production of sustainable kerosene on an industrial scale. For this purpose, the network partners, including the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), are developing tailor-made catalysts in order to further develop the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis (FTS) established in fuel production for the use of renewable energy sources.With a share of more than 80 percent, fossil fuels are still by far the most important raw material for fuel, heating and the chemical industry (source: International Energy Agency, IEA).&nbsp;Sustainable fuels are based on green hydrogen and carbon dioxide - and should make a significant contribution to decarbonising sectors such as aviation, where fossil fuels are particularly difficult to replace.&nbsp;In the CARE-O-SENE project, seven South African and German project partners are therefore researching next-generation Fischer-Tropsch catalysts.<h2>Tailor-made catalysts for the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis</h2>The focus of the application-oriented project is the development of resource-saving catalysts for the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis.&nbsp;In this process, hydrogen and carbon monoxide are converted into hydrocarbons and water under high pressure and high temperatures.&nbsp;The slightly further modified hydrocarbons are the basis of kerosene.&nbsp;Sustainable kerosene is obtained in this way by using green hydrogen and carbon dioxide from biogenic sources or by separating it from the air (direct air capture).&quot;The catalysts have to become more efficient, more selective, and more durable,&quot; says Professor Jan-Dierk Grunwaldt from the Institute for Catalysis Research and Technology (IKFT) at KIT and Chairman of the Research Using Synchrotron Radiation Committee.&nbsp;To develop an optimal design, he and his team are investigating the structures and behavior of the cobalt catalysts used in the FTS under real process conditions - at over 200 degrees and a pressure of more than 20 bar.&nbsp;&quot;We want to understand this in detail so that we can then develop tailor-made catalysts,&quot; says Grunwaldt.For the investigations, the team uses synchrotron research methods: They use high-energy photons to examine the chemical state of the individual metal particles using X-ray absorption spectroscopy on the one hand and the structures of the entire catalyst using X-ray diffraction on the other.&nbsp;&quot;This means that for the first time we can watch FTS catalysts at work during operation, right down to the molecular level,&quot; says Dr.&nbsp;Anna Zimina, head of the CATACT measurement line at the KIT Light Source.The measurements not only provide information about disruptive structural changes that can occur during the chemical reaction and reduce the yield of the target product.&nbsp;The resulting data is also incorporated into theoretical models and sustainability calculations.&nbsp;On this basis, the researchers can make predictions about how the catalyst will change and what adjustments are necessary to make the industrial process stable, ecologically sustainable and economical.&nbsp;&ldquo;Nowadays, theoretical calculations allow us to map the molecular processes to catalysts and thus to better understand them.&nbsp;This then helps to make predictions for better catalysts,&rdquo; says Professor Felix Studt, head of the Theoretical Catalysis department at IKFT.The KIT receives about five million euros from the funding of the BMBF.&nbsp;Part of this goes to the University of Cape Town as a subcontractor.<h2>Goal: to produce decentrally and more selectively and on a larger scale</h2>The scientists involved in CARE-O-SENE are convinced that regions such as South Africa, in which solar and wind energy is available reliably and over a long period of time for the production of green hydrogen, offer great potential for producing green kerosene either decentrally in modular systems , but also to produce on a larger scale.&nbsp;&quot;We want to leverage this potential with this project and our strong consortium partners and increase the yield,&quot; says Grunwaldt.<h2>About CARE-O-SENE</h2>The BMBF funds CARE-O-SENE with 30 million euros.&nbsp;In addition, the industrial consortium partners are contributing ten million euros.&nbsp;Seven partners from South Africa and Germany are involved in the research project, which is an important component of the federal government&#39;s national hydrogen strategy.&nbsp;The coordination lies with the integrated chemical and energy company Sasol and the Helmholtz Center Berlin for Materials and Energy.&nbsp;As the third major partner, KIT is involved with the Institute for Catalysis Research and Technology and the Institute for Industrial Management and Production.&nbsp;Other partners are Ineratec GmbH, a KIT spin-off, the University of Cape Town, with which KIT has had close ties for years,Further information:<a href="https://care-o-sene.com/de_de/" target="_blank">https://care-o-sene.com/de_de/</a>

In the international CARE-O-SENE project, researchers are developing tailor-made Fischer-Tropsch catalysts for the production of sustainable kerosene. (Photo: Tiziana Carambia)

Sustainable fuels are based on green hydrogen and carbon dioxide - and should make a significant contribution to decarbonising sectors such as aviation, where fossil fuels are particularly difficult to replace.

Sustainable kerosene: accelerating production on an industrial scale

Gas turbines are widely used for power generation and aircraft propulsion. According to the laws of thermodynamics, the higher the temperature of an engine, the higher the efficiency. Because of these laws, there is an emerging interest in increasing turbines&rsquo; operating temperature.&nbsp;A team of researchers from the Department of Materials Science and Engineering at Texas A&amp;M University, in conjunction with researchers from Ames National Laboratory, have developed an artificial intelligence framework capable of predicting high entropy alloys (HEAs) that can withstand extremely high temperature, oxidizing environments. This method could significantly reduce the time and costs of finding alloys by decreasing the number of experimental analyses required.<a href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/ArticleLanding/2022/MH/D2MH00729K" target="_blank">This research was recently published in&nbsp;Material Horizons.</a>Under prolonged high-temperature conditions, turbine blades can result in catastrophic failure from melting or oxidizing. Unfortunately, current turbine blade materials have already reached their operational limit.Engineering advancements such as coatings and cooling channels have delayed the need for changing the materials used for turbines. However, air travel is expected to double in volume over the next decade, and gas turbines are becoming an increasingly dominant technology for power generation. Therefore, turbines require higher efficiency to reduce fuel usage and limit carbon dioxide emissions.&nbsp;&ldquo;Gas turbines function by converting chemical energy into mechanical motion but are limited by their temperature threshold,&rdquo; said Dr. Raymundo Arroyave, professor in the Department of Materials Science and Engineering. &ldquo;The next step of revolutionizing turbine technology is to change the material that is used to fabricate components, such as the blades, so that they can operate at higher temperatures without oxidizing catastrophically.&rdquo;When looking at different types of alloys for turbines, there is significant attention around HEAs. HEAs are concentrated alloys that do not have a clear majority element. A unique characteristic of HEAs is that these alloys become more stable at higher temperatures, offering the potential for use in extreme environments.Despite their ability to withstand high temperatures, HEAs are susceptible to rusting (oxidizing). HEAs can have many compositions, exponentially expanding the types of oxides that can form. Finding a composition that could resist oxidation would require extensive experimentation at very high costs.To circumvent the drawbacks and costs of HEA discovery, the researchers developed an artificial intelligence framework capable of predicting the oxidation behavior of HEAs. This framework, combining computational thermodynamics, machine learning and quantum mechanics, can quantitatively predict the oxidation of HEAs of arbitrary chemical compositions. The time necessary to computationally screen the alloys is drastically reduced, from years to mere minutes. Very fast and efficient screening, in turn, results in a reduced need for resource-intensive experimental trials.&ldquo;When searching a large compositional space, experimentalists would have to take hundreds of variations of a very complex material, oxidize them and then characterize their performance, which could take weeks, months or even years,&rdquo; said Daniel Sauceda, a graduate student in the materials science and engineering department. &ldquo;Our research significantly shortened the process by creating a roadmap of the oxidation of HEAs, showing researchers what you can expect from different compositions.&rdquo;Using the framework, the researchers predicted the oxidation behavior of multiple alloy compositions. They then sent the predictions to Ames National Laboratory&#39;s scientist Gaoyuan Ouyang and his team to test their findings and verify that the framework accurately demonstrates if an alloy would or would not resist oxidation.&ldquo;The ability of the framework to accurately pinpoint detrimental phases will enable the design of improved oxidation-resistant materials,&rdquo; said Ames National Laboratory scientist Prashant Singh, who co-led the framework development. &ldquo;The approach presented in this study is general and applicable to understanding oxidation behavior of HEAs as well as provide insights into oxidation and corrosion-resistant materials for other applications.&rdquo;&nbsp;The tools developed in this study could potentially alter the process by which scientists discover materials for extreme environments by using artificial intelligence tools to rapidly siphon through astronomical numbers of alloys in a very short time.&ldquo;This tool will help screen out alloys that will not work for our application needs while allowing us to spend more time and create a more detailed analysis of alloys that are worth investigating,&rdquo; said Arroyave. &ldquo;While our predictions are not 100% accurate, they still provide sufficient information to make informed decisions on what materials are worth investigating at a speed that would have been unthinkable before this framework was developed.&rdquo;&nbsp;The HEAs found through this framework have potential applications, such as gas turbines for propulsion and power generation, heat exchangers and many others that require materials to withstand extreme operating conditions.&ldquo;By enabling the discovery of materials capable of withstanding extreme environments, this work directly contributes to the Department of Energy&rsquo;s goal of achieving net-zero carbon emissions by 2050,&rdquo; said Singh.&nbsp;The joint work by Texas A&amp;M and Ames National Laboratory was supported by the Ultrahigh Temperature Impervious Materials Advancing Turbine Efficiency Program of the Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy. The National Science Foundation and the U.S. Department of Energy (Basic Energy Science and Fossil Energy program) also supported this work.

Current turbine blade materials have already reached their operational limit. To combat this problem, a team developed a framework capable of predicting the oxidation of high-entropy alloys that offer the potential to be used in gas turbines. | Image: Texas A&M Engineering

Gas turbines are widely used for power generation and aircraft propulsion. According to the laws of thermodynamics, the higher the temperature of an engine, the higher the efficiency. Because of these laws, there is an emerging interest in increasing turbines’ operating temperature. 

Discovering materials for gas turbine engines through efficient predictive frameworks

Contrails are generated as a result of aircraft emissions. They could amplify the greenhouse effect in the form of long-lasting ice clouds. The soot particles from jet fuel combustion act as particularly strong condensation nuclei for cloud formation in the part of the atmosphere where cold air is present. New engine technologies and the use of sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs) offer promising approaches to significantly reduce the climate impact of contrails. To this end, the German Aerospace Center (Deutsches Zentrum f&uuml;r Luft- und Raumfahrt; DLR) is supporting an <a href="https://www.airbus.com/en/innovation/zero-emission" target="_blank" title="External link Airbus test flight programme">Airbus</a> test flight programme, operated by its subsidiary <a href="https://www.airbus.com/en/innovation/innovation-ecosystem/airbus-upnext" target="_blank" title="External link Airbus UpNext">Airbus UpNext</a>, which is investigating for the first time contrails produced by a carbon dioxide emission-free aircraft that is powered by hydrogen. As part of the Blue Condor project, test flights are planned for the end of 2022 and in 2023 in North Dakota, USA.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1659354260522-measurement-flight-above-the-clouds.jpg" style="width: 766px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Measurement flight above the clouds. Credit: &copy; AV Experts, LLC. All rights reserved<h2>Engine comparison</h2>Two Arcus gliders operated by the <a href="https://perlanproject.org/" target="_blank" title="External link Perlan Project">Perlan project</a> will be deployed for the test flights, one equipped with a hydrogen jet engine and the other with a conventional kerosene-powered combustion engine. To ensure comparability of the data, the test flights will be carried out in immediate succession under the same meteorological conditions.The respective glider will be towed by an EGRETT, a high-altitude research aircraft, to an altitude of more than nine kilometres. There, the glider will ignite the engine with which it is equipped. The EGRETT, outfitted with measurement instruments, then takes on the role of chaser and flies through the contrail in close formation, which also allows for the emissions from the exhaust plume to be measured.The aim is to measure the microphysical properties of &#39;hydrogen contrails&#39; in the atmosphere for the first time. The data will contribute to a better understanding of the formation of contrails resulting from hydrogen propulsion. In this way, technologies can be developed to modify the properties of the clouds impacting the climate and further mitigate their effect. Airbus is providing the hydrogen system and equipment, including the combustion engine, and is planning the flights of the test mission together with DLR. The <a href="https://www.dlr.de/content/en/institutes/institute-of-atmospheric-physics.html" target="_blank" title="Institute of Atmospheric Physics">DLR Institute of Atmospheric Physics</a> is responsible for the measurements and data analysis.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1659354294872-preparing-for-the-blue-condor-measurement-flights.jpg" style="width: 766px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Preparing for the Blue Condor measurement flights. Credit: &copy; DLR. All rights reserved<h2>Revolutionising future aviation</h2>&quot;DLR is a world leader when it comes to researching aircraft emissions. In order to achieve climate-neutral aviation, research results must be incorporated directly into the development of new products. We are pleased to be able to support Airbus and its subsidiary with this technology transfer,&quot; says Markus Fischer, DLR Divisional Board Member for Aeronautics. Sandra Bour Schaeffer, CEO of Airbus UpNext adds: &quot;The aviation industry is already working hard to reduce all aviation emissions by 2050, and we are proud to have international experts at our side for this next important step.&quot;Hydrogen engines predominantly emit water vapour and nitrogen oxides. Models show that the resulting contrails could have a much smaller effect on the climate. Direct hydrogen combustion does not produce particulate matter. Experts therefore suspect that the ice particles formed tend to be larger and occur in smaller numbers than with soot emissions. As a result, their rainout occurs faster, which means that the contrails are short-lived and contribute only marginally to global warming. However, science has lacked concrete measurement data on these complex atmospheric processes so far.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1659354310881-group-photo-of-the-blue-condor-project-team.jpg" style="width: 766px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Group photo of the Blue Condor project team. Credit: &copy; AV Experts, LLC. All rights reservedIf the assumptions based on models can thus be confirmed, hydrogen combustion could revolutionise aviation of the future. This is precisely why measurements at cruising altitudes are necessary because it is not clear whether the models cover all relevant processes. Hydrogen combustion also offers significant reduction potential because it does not lead to carbon dioxide emissions. Only the increased emission of water vapour into the stratosphere could counteract the mitigating climate effect of these contrails and must be taken into account in the analyses. The &lsquo;Blue Condor measurement flights&rsquo; will provide fundamental data that will allow reliable statements on contrails to be issued for the first time.The atmospheric researchers at Oberpfaffenhofen are using tried and tested instruments as well as instruments that were developed specifically for the mission. In particular, water vapour and ice particles as well as nitrogen oxides and aerosols are to be measured during the flight. The DLR project group H2CONTRAIL is leading from the DLR side and supplementing the measurements with targeted simulations to investigate the climate impact of contrails from hydrogen-fueled engines.<h2>Research and industry united</h2>The cooperation between research and industry goes far beyond the Blue Condor project. Airbus, DLR and the other stakeholders are active in several demonstration programmes, including ECLIF2, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-021-00174-y" target="_blank" title="External link NATURE Communications Earth and Environment Paper Ausgabe 17.06.2021">ECLIF3 (Emission and Climate Impact of Alternative Fuels)</a> and VOLCAN (VOL avec Carburants Alternatifs Nouveaux). The common goal is to gain more precise insights into the climate benefits of contrails resulting from sustainable fuels and modern engine technologies. The Blue Condor project serves to complement these programmes. DLR is thus also supporting Airbus&#39; efforts to develop an emission-free aircraft by 2035. This is in line with the aviation strategy set out by DLR in December 2021 for the European Green Deal: &#39;<a href="https://www.dlr.de/content/en/downloads/publications/brochures/2021/towards-zero-emission-aviation.html" target="_blank" title="Brochure: Towards zero-emission aviation (2021)">Towards zero-emission aviation</a>&#39;.

DLR supports new test flight programme by Airbus and its subsidiary Airbus UpNext for CO2-emission-free flight. The 'Blue Condor' project investigates the effects of contrails from hydrogen engines.

Analysing the contrails of the future

This article is a part of our <a href="http://www.wevolver.com/student-program" target="_blank">University Technology Exposure Program</a>. The program aims to recognize and reward innovation from engineering students and researchers across the globe.Community voting is now live. Vote for your favorite submission by visiting:&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/utep-community-vote/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">University Technology Exposure Program Community Vote</a>.&nbsp;That hydrogen has a lot of potential as a fuel has been known for years, the first mention of a hydrogen economy happened in the year 1970. Still, there is a long way to go to make hydrogen fit in our future energy mix. Hydrogen, when produced with renewable energy, is a sustainable energy carrier. However, hydrogen has some problems. It is a flammable and light gas and must be stored under high pressure. This makes transport and seasonal storage of hydrogen difficult and therefore expensive. &nbsp;Iron-based Hydrogen Storage (IRHYS) offers an alternative to existing hydrogen storage options. Instead of storing hydrogen under high pressure, iron is used as a storage technique. We as SOLID are planning to have a proof of concept for generating hydrogen from iron at the beginning of this summer.&nbsp;<h2 dir="ltr">The Process</h2>Oxidizing iron using steam (the steam-iron process) creates iron oxide (rust) and hydrogen. This hydrogen can be separated from the rust and can then be used for various applications. They produced iron oxide that can be regenerated by adding green hydrogen to the iron oxide. This creates a sustainable cycle where hydrogen can be stored and released when you need it. The cycle is shown in Figure 1.&nbsp;<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjQ3NDUzNDU0ODk3LTE2NDc0NTM0NTQ4OTcucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" class="fr-fic fr-dii" alt="IRHYS-system">Figure 1 IRHYS cycleIRHYS systems provide an efficient, safe, and possibly cheaper alternative to current hydrogen storage techniques. Iron is easier to store and transport than hydrogen because it only ignites at higher temperatures. Besides, it does not need to be stored under any pressure. Iron is a versatile substance. Not only is iron suitable for hydrogen storage, but the iron powder is fuel on its own.&nbsp;In this project, SOLID is going to make a proof of concept of the steam-iron oxidation reaction (the right part of the total cycle in an IRHYS system). The main focus of the project is the realization of a steam-iron oxidation reactor. This reactor must be suitable for converting iron pellets into rust and hydrogen by letting it react with steam. The technology is expected to be highly scalable and can be used to replace current hydrogen storage&nbsp;methods in various sectors. A simplified scheme of the oxidation process, which is taking place in the reactor, is shown in figure 2. &nbsp;The process starts with placing the iron pellets in the steam-iron oxidation reactor. With the help of an evaporator, steam is added to the reactor. This causes the oxidation reaction to take place. This reaction is an exothermic reaction that releases heat that can be used in the evaporator to generate more steam. The reaction that takes place in the reactor is:<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjQ3NDU0MjU3MTM4LTE2NDc0NTQyNTcxMzgucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 300px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">After this reaction has taken place there is still a mix of hydrogen and water (steam) left, the water is filtered out in the condenser so that pure hydrogen is left and can be extracted from the reactor.&nbsp;An obstacle to our innovation is the lack of information about the reactor. As there is no physical reactor yet, it is not known what the exact purity of the created hydrogen, the total amount of hydrogen produced, or the reaction kinetics will be. These information gaps will be found during the testing phase of the proof of concept. This will take place in May 2022.&nbsp; <img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjQ3NDUzNDU0NTc5LTE2NDc0NTM0NTQ1NzkucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" class="fr-fic fr-dii" alt="oxidation-process">Figure 2 Scheme of the oxidation process [1]<h2>Application&nbsp;</h2>Currently, a lot of countries are building wind turbines and placing solar panels to achieve the goals described in the climate agreement and gain more green energy. However, the sun does not always shine and the wind does not always blow. While on the other hand there are moments that the energy supply is higher than the energy demand. The latter is the moment when the rust has to be regenerated to iron pellets. Whereafter these can be transported to anywhere in the world. Where the hydrogen can be extracted by oxidizing the pellets.&nbsp;Industries that use hydrogen as a fuel can use iron to store this hydrogen without having to keep it under strict storage regulations. Furthermore, transportation of hydrogen in iron can be done through the current infrastructure, so there are no changes required there.<h2 dir="ltr">Iron Fuel</h2>Iron has an additional function, it can also be used as fuel to generate heat. The process has a similar cycle as the IRHYS technology, shown in figure 3.&nbsp;<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjQ3NDUzNDU1MTM2LTE2NDc0NTM0NTUxMzYucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" class="fr-fic fr-dii">Figure 3 Generation of heat using IRHYSIn this technology, iron can be used as a method of storing energy in general, instead of merely hydrogen. The iron will be combusted instead of oxidized with steam, generating much heat. Iron Fuel has already been demonstrated at potential end-use, Swinkels Brewery, and is being scaled up as we speak.&nbsp;In this video, the process of Iron Fuel is explained further:&nbsp;<iframe width="640" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/8rm6kc202PE?&wmode=opaque&rel=0&enablejsapi=1&origin=https://www.wevolver.com" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="" class="fr-draggable" data-lf-yt-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-gtm-yt-inspected-1_19="true" id="564343540"></iframe> SOLID has not been working on this technology alone but worked in a consortium with many partners. These are: the TU/e, Metalot, EMGroup, HeatPower, Pometon, RIFT, RI.SE, Shell, and Romico. And the projects of this technology are supported by: Uniper, Enpuls, Nyrstar, Veolia, Swinkels, RWE, and Energy Storage NL.<h2 dir="ltr">Our Team</h2>SOLID is a student team of approximately 20 students every academic year. The team consists of full-time members and part-time members. We have several sub-teams in our team. Starting with the management team, making sure all subteams know what they have to do. The business team is working on the economic feasibility of IRHYS technology. The marketing team is promoting IRHYS but also Iron Fuel, making sure everybody knows the technology exists.&nbsp;<img alt="Afbeelding met persoon, groep, poseren Automatisch gegenereerde beschrijving" src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjQ3NDUzNDU2MTU1LTE2NDc0NTM0NTYxNTUucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" id="isPasted" class="fr-fic fr-dii"> The technical team is designing and building the reactor. And we also have our finance team, checking all the expenses and making sure we have enough money. At last, we have our HR team, keeping everybody in the team happy! The members of our team all have different educational backgrounds. Some are still in their bachelor&rsquo;s or are just finished with their bachelor&rsquo;s, while others are already in their masters. We as SOLID think it is important to help with the energy transition and contribute to a greener tomorrow. We strive to enable access to clean and renewable energy for anyone at any time!<h2>References</h2>[1] Brinkman, L., Bulfin, B., &amp; Steinfeld, A. (2021). Thermochemical Hydrogen Storage via the Reversible Reduction and Oxidation of Metal Oxides. Energy &amp; Fuels, 35(22), 18756&ndash;18767. <a data-reactroot="" data-token-index="1" href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.1c02615" id="isPasted" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.1c02615</a><h2 dir="ltr" id="isPasted">About the University Technology Exposure Program 2022</h2>Wevolver, in partnership with <a href="https://mouser.com/" target="_blank">Mouser Electronics</a> and <a href="https://www.ansys.com/" target="_blank">Ansys</a>, is excited to announce the launch of the University Technology Exposure Program 2022. The program aims to recognize and reward innovation from engineering students and researchers across the globe. Learn more about the program <a href="http://www.wevolver.com/student-program" target="_blank">here</a>.<img alt="university-technology-exposure-program-mouser-ansys" src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjQ3NDU0NTkwMTY2LTE2NDc0NTQ1OTAxNjYucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" class="fr-fic fr-dii">

By making use of steam and iron pellets, hydrogen can be created with the only byproduct being rust and heat. By regenerating the rust with hydrogen, a completely circular, compact, safe and energy efficient hydrogen storage method is created.

Iron-based Hydrogen Storage

<section id="isPasted">As part of the goals of the Paris Climate Accords, we must decrease fossil fuel-related CO2 in the atmosphere. One way to do this, and at the same time produce sustainable fuels, is to split CO2 molecules into carbon monoxide (CO) and oxygen. The CO could then be used to make fuels for the aviation and manufacturing industries. For his PhD research, Alex van de Steeg studied in detail how high-temperature plasmas split CO2 into CO. His results suggest that using plasmas is an appealing way to make the building blocks for sustainable fuels in the future. Van de Steeg&nbsp;obtained his PhD cum laude&nbsp;at the department of Applied Physics on March 1st.</section><section tabindex="-1">To split the chemical bonds in CO2 molecules, heat is needed. One way to get this heat is from plasmas, and it’s been long known that plasmas can efficiently split CO2, thanks to 40-year-old research from the Soviet Union. &nbsp;“Issues with the climate and greenhouse gases have led to this old research been explored by many scientists,” says <a href="https://research.tue.nl/en/persons/alex-w-van-de-steeg" target="_blank">Alex van de Steeg</a>, researcher in the Elementary Processes in Gas Discharges group in the department of Applied Physics.While the old research has left its mark on scientists, it has also confused them. “It has been hard to reproduce past results,” notes Van de Steeg. “For example, recent experiments with CO2 plasmas have shown that higher temperatures are needed, above 3000 kelvin (K) in fact. But the old research indicates that splitting can take place at lower temperatures.”<h2 id="isPasted">Motivation for new methods</h2>Disagreement between the past results and recent attempts to replicate them proved a great motivation for Van de Steeg’s research, which he carried out at DIFFER under the supervision of Gerard van Rooij and Richard van de Sanden and in collaboration with Maastricht University and Shell.&nbsp;“To gain a better understanding of how CO2 dissociates or splits in a plasma, we developed new ways to study CO2 plasmas generated in a microwave using so-called laser scattering diagnostics,” says Van de Steeg. “This involves focusing an intense laser beam into the plasma and then measuring the light scattered. In this way, we can gather time and spatial information on the temperature and composition of the plasma.”Measurements of the CO2 plasma provided information on the chemical and physical processes that occur during splitting of the molecules. Added to that, the researchers gained a new appreciation for the extreme conditions in CO2 plasmas. “The plasma temperature exceeds 6000 K, which is hotter than the surface of the sun,” notes Van de Steeg.Probing the plasma also helped Van de Steeg and the researchers to create a map of the plasma, which they then combined with a numerical model. “This helped us to identify reaction rates and the molecules involved in those reactions in different parts of the plasma, and it showed that chemical reactivity is dependent on very high temperatures, which contradicts the past results. Before we didn’t have this information, so having this information is significant.”<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1646297542695-csm_Steeg+Aeroplane+wing+SMALL_444d6d4566.jpg" style="width: 766px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Fuels made using carbon monoxide derived from CO2 plasmas could be used in the aviation industry in the future. Source: Shutterstock.&nbsp;<h2 id="isPasted">Reactions count</h2>What’s more, Van de Steeg’s research revealed the chemical reactions that produced the most CO, which would of course increase the potential to produce more fuels afterwards.“Two reactions lead to almost all splitting: collisions of CO2 molecules with other molecules in the plasma, and the aggregation of O and CO2 (known as association) that eventually leads to CO and O2,” says Van de Steeg.And it’s the second of these reactions that might lead to an increased (or larger) energy efficiency of thermal CO2 reactors. “Maximum efficiency without O-CO2 association is just above 50%, which increases to 70% when they are included. And this is close to the efficiencies reached in experiments 40 years ago.”One thing to note is that a lot of energy is needed to initiate the plasma reactions, but this energy can be more than balanced thanks to the potential of using the CO molecules to make sustainable fuels. “So, instead of taking oil from wells to produce fossil fuels, we can make fuels using the CO2 already in the atmosphere from combusting fuels in the past. It’s a circular process of sort.”&nbsp;<h2>Future fuels</h2>Van de Steeg’s research indicates that high energy efficiencies of CO2 splitting are within reach, and he’s very optimistic about where these findings could go. “With these findings and careful reactor design, high energy efficiencies are within reach, which means that plasma splitting approaches could be an attractive technology for the energy transition.”And what makes it even more attractive is the availability of large-scale microwave radiation equipment that can be used to split CO2 using plasmas. With plenty of CO2 in the atmosphere and the technology in place, it seems like it’s only a matter of time until research like that of Van de Steeg helps to establish reactors to produce future fuels from CO2.Title of PhD-thesis: “<a href="https://research.tue.nl/en/publications/insight-into-co2-dissociation-kinetics-in-microwave-plasma-using-" target="_blank">Insight into CO2 dissociation kinetics in microwave plasma using laser scattering</a>”. Supervisors: Gerard van Rooij and Richard van de Sanden.&nbsp;<hr>This article was first published here: <a href="https://www.tue.nl/en/news-and-events/news-overview/01-03-2022-how-to-convert-carbon-dioxide-into-the-building-blocks-for-fuel/" id="isPasted" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">https://www.tue.nl/en/news-and-events/news-overview/01-03-2022-how-to-convert-carbon-dioxide-into-the-building-blocks-for-fuel/</a></section>

Alex van de Steeg mapped CO2 plasmas to figure out the reactions at play when CO2 splits into other molecules at temperatures hotter than the surface of the sun.

How to convert carbon dioxide into the building blocks for fuel

In this episode, we talk about additive manufacturing being used to create fuel injection nozzles for marine applications and the subterranean 3D printed drone being used to combat food insecurity. As always, you can find these and other interesting &amp; impactful engineering articles on Wevolver.com.<iframe height="200px" width="100%" frameborder="no" scrolling="no" seamless="" src="https://player.simplecast.com/daa4f262-2823-4228-8c36-92bc8cb21919?dark=false" class="fr-draggable"></iframe>&nbsp;<hr>This podcast is sponsored by <a href="https://www2.mouser.com/" id="isPasted" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Mouser Electronics</a>.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1643114713362-Mouser-sponsor-1-a.jpg" style="width: 766px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"><hr><h3 id="isPasted">EPISODE NOTES</h3>(2:46) - <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/3d-printed-engine-parts-can-make-cargo-ships-more-eco-friendly/" target="_blank">3-D Printed Engine Parts</a>The large marine engines of the world’s cargo ships are an important focus area in the maritime industry’s efforts to become more sustainable. An essential component in this context is the injection nozzle, which injects fuel into the engine, where it is mixed with oxygen to ensure optimal combustion. Fuel-oxygen mixture is critical to combustion engine performance, it can massively affect output power, efficiency, emissions, engine lifetime, etc.Additive manufacturing can be leveraged for optimal performance by creating fuel injector nozzles with geometries that were not possible before due to the limitations of traditional manufacturing techniques.(11:56) - <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/subterranean-drone-tackling-food-security-wins-the-high-temperature-carbon-fiber-3d-printing-challenge/" target="_blank">Subterranean Drone Combating Food Insecurity</a>Crover is a team of 25 based out of Edinburgh, Scotland that is developing a robot to traverse through bulk solids and powders. They’ve developed a unique robot capable of moving through powdery solids in a non-destructive manner making it an ideal solution for monitoring the condition of stored grain in silos and therefore preventing billions of dollars in food waste every year.What’s great about this technology is that it can also be leveraged to explore the lunar and martian surfaces since they have a similar powdery surface.Episode 54 was brought to you by Mouser Electronics, Farbod &amp; Daniel’s favorite electronics distributor. Click <a href="https://www.mouser.com/applications/3d-printing-change-auto-design/" target="_blank">here&nbsp;</a>to read the article discussing the possibilities of 3D printing in the automotive industry.<hr><article id="isPasted">About the podcast:Every day, some of the most innovative universities, companies, and individual technology developers share their knowledge on Wevolver. To ensure we can also provide this knowledge for the growing group of podcast listeners, we started a collaboration with two young engineers, Daniel Scott Mitchell &amp; Farbod Moghaddam who discuss the most interesting content in this podcast series.&nbsp;To learn more about this show, please visit the <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/profile/the.next.byte" target="_blank">shows page</a>. By following the page, you will get automatic updates by email when a new show is published.Be sure to give us a follow and review on <a href="https://podcasts.apple.com/nl/podcast/the-next-byte/id1548255861?l=en" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Apple</a> podcasts, <a href="https://open.spotify.com/show/6lPPsRtegnivsRUEsQ09R7?si=IPMiah7xT_apJtPjqvXMlA" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Spotify</a>, and most of your favorite podcast platforms!Take a few seconds to leave us a review. It really helps!&nbsp;<a href="https://apple.co/2RIsbZ2" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">https://apple.co/2RIsbZ2</a>If you do it and send us proof, we’ll give you a shoutout on the show.</article><a href="https://www.wevolver.com/profile/wevolver.staff" target="_blank"></a>

In this episode, we talk about additive manufacturing being used to create fuel injection nozzles for marine applications and the subterranean 3D printed drone being used to combat food insecurity.

fuel

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