Julio Aleman, a Bioengineering PhD student at the University of Pittsburgh Swanson School of Engineering is performing research in microphysiological systems.Like many researchers, Aleman needed a microwell array system with individual wells that have a specific size, shape and density. In fact, Aleman needed two different microwell arrays that would support the injection moulding of hydrogels and serve as “master moulds” – the original moulds that he could replicate. In turn, these replicate moulds would be used for microwell fabrication. <img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1605869692139-PittsburghCaseStudy2.png">Hydrogel mould of 484-microwell arrayTo produce master moulds like this, photolithography (optical lithography or UV lithography) is often used. The process begins by spin coating a negative photoresist on a wafer to establish mould thickness and microwell depth. Photopatterning is achieved by light exposure through specialised high-resolution masks and finalised by chemical development of the master mould. Then, replicas of the master mould are made by casting pre-polymers over the negative template and polymerising them by thermal curing.Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) silicone is the biocompatible polymer that is most often used. Typically, the production of master moulds and masks requires specialised facilities and equipment. Micro-injection moulding can also produce master moulds, but the tooling is expensive and time-consuming to produce. <h1>An Alternative to Clean Room Photolithographic and Injection Moulding</h1>Projection Micro Stereolithography (PμSL) from Boston Micro Fabrication (BMF) allows for the rapid photo-polymerisation of a layer of resin with a flash of ultraviolet (UV) light at micro-scale resolution. PμSL offers an alternative to photosoft lithography, etching, deposition, micro-injection moulding, and other traditional microfabrication methods.PμSL, a form of micro 3D printing, can produce small components with fine features and tight tolerances that are otherwise impossible to create. PμSL is capable of achieving a resolution of 2µm~50µm and a tolerance of +/- 5µm~25µm, thus providing ultra-high-resolution that is mould-free and mask-free for fast prototyping and end-use parts.  <h1>Project Requirements for Two Master Moulds</h1>The University of Pittsburgh project needed master moulds for replicate silicone moulds that, in turn, would be used to make biomaterial-based microwells. Normally, master moulds require a cleanroom and can be challenging to characterise. Researchers can’t perform profilometer measurements until the moulds are baked, and a mould with the wrong dimensions means lost time and money.Julio Aleman’s project required fast turnaround times and high-volume production. Accuracy, resolution, and precision were critically important. Several PDMS replicas that were cured at 80° Celsius were needed and the repeated processes on the master mould had to have little to no impact on the dimensions while the master mould was also securely fixed in a substrate. Aleman knew that he would need moulds in two different sizes, and that the silicone moulds should allow for the bottoms of the hydrogel micro-wells to have constant and defined amounts of biomaterial once injected and polymerized onto a glass slide. After some preliminary discussions, he ordered parts from BMF.The master moulds that the University of Pittsburgh asked BMF to produce were square with a defined hole–pattern. The first mould was for a 64-microwell array. It had an overall area of 20 mm x 20 mm and a thickness of 1.65 mm. The diameter for each hole and the distance between holes was 600 microns, or 0.6 mm, and the base of each of the microwells had a height of 50 microns from the surface. The second mould was for a 484-microwell array. The overall area was the same as for the first mould (20 mm x 20 mm), but the thickness for the second mould was significantly less at 1 mm. There were also more holes – and the holes were smaller. These wells measured just 150 microns, or 0.15 mm, in diameter with a similar base height of 50 microns.3D printed mould for 64-microwell array<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1605869775020-PittsburghCaseStudy3.png">3D printed mould for 64-microwell array<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1605869800497-PittsburghCaseStudy4.png">3D printed mould for 484-microwell array<h1>Expert Advice and Flexible Material Selection</h1>BMF’s application team reviewed the designs for the University of Pittsburgh moulds. They recommended increasing the thickness of the second mould to greater than 1 mm. Otherwise, a mould that is too thin may experience part distortion or internal stresses during the printing process. Aleman revised the thickness and BMF then created sample parts using GR resin, a high-performance engineering material that is black in colour, able to withstand temperatures up to 102°C, and that supports sterilising.Because the COVID-19 pandemic limited Aleman’s access to university facilities, the graduate researcher limited his mould evaluation to microscopy. In turn, this meant that parts made of a dark resin would be more difficult to inspect. To support microscopic techniques, Aleman needed a resin that would allow more light to pass through so that the features of the resin mould could be more clearly seen. The solution was to use an HLT resin instead. This yellow resin from BMF offers greater transparency but still provides good impact strength, heat resistance, and support for autoclave sterilisation.<h1> </h1><h1>Speed, Accuracy and More</h1>&nbsp;Julio Aleman was pleased with the quick lead time – the moulds were delivered in just two weeks. Instead of waiting months to get a single injection-mould, he could provide a master mould to each member of the research team. The moulds also exhibited dimensional stability and, unlike spin coating in photolithography, did not require multiple fabrication steps. After hard baking some master moulds in an oven overnight, Aleman attached them to a surface with double-sided electrical tape. The moulds experienced only a 10 to 20-micrometre reduction in size, and that may have been caused by pressing the moulds against the surface or the tape while the moulds were still malleable from baking.Aleman also reported that after approximately 10 cycles of PDMS moulding, the BMF master moulds did not exhibit any bending or deformation. To prevent sticking, the replicate moulds were salinated with Vapor Phase Deposition (VPD). This treatment, which is also used with the SU8 moulds in photolithography, permitted the easy detachment of the PDMS moulds from the BMF master moulds. Aleman reported that the master mould with the larger features was easily salinated over one hour of exposure while the mould with smaller features required five hours or overnight exposure.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1605869860170-PittsburghCaseStudy5.png">PDMS replica of 64-microwell array<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1605869888883-PittsburghCaseStudy6.png">PDMS replica of 484-microwell array<h1> </h1><h1>Proof-of-Concept for Your Next Project&nbsp;</h1>As the University of Pittsburgh project demonstrates, researchers can use micro 3D printing to speed microwell array fabrication. If your application requires proof-of-concept parts such as master moulds, BMF can harness the power of PμSL technology on your behalf. We can also help you with material selection and recommend the best microArch printer from our growing family of ultra-high resolution 3D printers.In an exclusive partnership with BMF, CREATE Education are sharing their knowledge, support and experience, to bring micro 3D printing technology to the forefront of their education community in the UK and Ireland, enabling breakthrough research and development.CREATE Education are committed to supporting educators, educational institutions, outreach and community programs with the aim to bring cutting edge technologies throughout the world, such as 3D printers, into education.To learn more about PμSL technology and micro 3D Printing for research, please contact <a href="https://bit.ly/ContactCREATEEd" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">CREATE Education’s specialists</a>.

Julio Aleman, a Bioengineering PhD student needed two different microwell array system with individual wells that would support injection moulding of hydrogels and serve as “master moulds”

University of Pittsburgh Speeds Microwell Fabrication with Micro 3D Printing

This is the second in an eight-part series exploring 5G. The series will explain key terms and technologies and provide an overview of current and future applications for 5G connectivity.The articles were originally published in an e-magazine, and have been substantially edited by Wevolver to update them and make them available on the Wevolver platform. This series is sponsored by Mouser, an online distributor of electronic components. Through their sponsorship,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/profile/mouser.electronics" target="_blank">Mouser Electronics</a>&nbsp;supports a more connected future fuelled by knowledge and innovation.&nbsp;<h1>Introduction</h1>The 5G mobile communications standard is designed to fulfill several performance and use case requirements currently not possible in 4G networks, including:<ul><li>Enhanced broadband that brings fiber-optic speeds and bandwidth to over-the-air (OTA) connections</li><li>Low latencies and extreme reliability for realtime OTA process control</li><li>Much higher device densities that will enable the massive Internet of Things (IoT) connectivity that is anticipated in smart cities</li><li>More energy efficiency to meet the increasing demand for low-power connectivity</li><li>High-speed adaptability for high-speed mobile applications</li><li>On-demand network scalability to meet the requirements of many industrial use cases</li></ul>Specifications outlined in 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP&trade;) Release 15 provide details for 5G New Radio (NR), which addresses the 5G air interface, and 5G Core, which deals with network functions. Both 5G NR and 5G Core are required to meet 5G performance expectations. This article looks at how 5G differs from 4G with respect to its performance, radio access technology, and network core functions. It further reviews how 5G specifications make new applications possible and how the 5G standard impacts component designs.<h1>How Does 5G Differ from 4G?</h1><img class="fr-fic fr-dib" src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiAid2V2b2x2ZXItcHJvamVjdC1pbWFnZXMiLCAia2V5IjogImZyb2FsYS8xNjA0MzQ3MzU5ODIyLUlsbHVzdHJhdGlvbiAwMy0wMSBlZGl0ZWQuanBnIiwgImVkaXRzIjogeyJyZXNpemUiOiB7IndpZHRoIjogOTUwLCAiZml0IjogImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 788px;">Meeting 5G&rsquo;s performance expectations requires additional spectrum as well as different waveforms and a flexible framework that allows service multiplexing and more dynamic multiple access capabilities. 5G meets these requirements through a new approach to scalable waveforms that works across a range of frequencies, creating an entirely new approach to session and network management.<h2>5G NR Increases Flexibility and Reduces Overhead</h2>5G NR applies a common waveform framework that scales across a range of bandwidths. Several techniques contribute to 5G&rsquo;s spectrum efficiency, flexibility, and reduced power consumption. Key differences between 5G NR and 4G Long-Term Evolution (LTE) include:<ul><li>Scalable orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (ODFM) numerology. ODFM is a widely used waveform for encoding digital communications. Its waveform numerology defines the structure and timing of information resources that the waveform carries, such as the number of subcarriers and the subcarrier spacing. Both 4G LTE and 5G NR use ODFM, but there are big differences. In 4G LTE, the numerology is always fixed; in 5G NR, the numerology is scalable for optimization in different bandwidths. This means that the subcarrier size and spacing are scalable to fit bandwidths that different frequencies provide. It also enables scalable TTI, which makes it possible to adjust latencies from very low for short-duration transmissions to longer latencies that make transmitting large data packets more efficient. Scalable ODFM numerology is the heart of 5G&rsquo;s scalability and flexibility.</li><li>Self-contained subframes. Introduced in the 5G NR specification, these structures enable the inclusion of data along with their transmission acknowledgments in the same subframe, further reducing latencies. They also enable the multiplexing of different kinds of subframes, and they support blank subframes to accommodate undefined future services. Self-contained subframes can also contain beamforming data specific to a transmission, which supports multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO) antenna transmissions and reduces interference.</li><li>Device-centric mobility. In LTE networks, receiving devices measure reference signals that base stations transmit to decide where to connect. Base stations transmit reference signals continuously, regardless of the presence of a receiving device&mdash;which requires processing overhead on the receiving device and excess power consumption by the transmitting equipment. In 5G transmissions, receiving devices transmit a reference signal when they need a network connection, and this reference signal triggers communication and handoff activities using appropriate transmitting equipment. This arrangement reduces power consumption and the number of reference signal broadcasts.</li><li>New cell architectures and antenna designs. To support larger numbers of connected devices, uninterrupted communications, and shorter operational ranges available from high-frequency bands, 5G will require denser cell architectures than are found in 4G LTE networks. Typical deployments could include a mix of macro-cells operating in low frequencies for wide outdoor coverage, small cells operating indoors and outdoors in mid-frequency ranges, and micro-cells (room sized) operating primarily indoors at millimeter wavelength frequencies. Beamforming techniques using massive MIMO (mMIMO) antenna arrays will provide uninterrupted coverage and much higher transmission efficiencies than 4G LTE produces with previous MIMO variations. 5G antenna designs will also produce more signal processing at the antennas to manage mobile device handoffs between cells.</li></ul><img class="fr-fic fr-dib" src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiAid2V2b2x2ZXItcHJvamVjdC1pbWFnZXMiLCAia2V5IjogImZyb2FsYS8xNjA0MzQ3NTYwMDQxLTUtMDEgKDEpLmpwZyIsICJlZGl0cyI6IHsicmVzaXplIjogeyJ3aWR0aCI6IDk1MCwgImZpdCI6ICJjb3ZlciJ9fX0=" style="width: 788px;"><h2>5G Core Virtualizes 4G Evolved Packet Core Network Architecture</h2>To meet <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/a-forward-glance-at-5g-applying-backwards-thinking" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">5G performance specifications</a>, especially as they relate to use case flexibility, scalability, and reliability, the 5G Core network has been redesigned from the ground up in a way that completely supplants the 4G Evolved Packet Core (EPC). Whereas 4G EPC relied on physical network elements, 5G Core is a cloud-native virtualized architecture that uses multi-access edge computing to deliver network functions as services to a network&rsquo;s edge. Key features and capabilities of the 5G Core architecture include:<ul><li>Separate control plane and user plane functions. This separation and reallocation of functions previously performed by EPC service and packet gateways enable a redistribution of packet processing functions to a network&rsquo;s edge. The result is better traffic management and scalability.</li><li>Redesign of session management functions. Mobility management and session management are now performed by different network elements, and new identity and authentication functions have been added. All this improves session management to deliver uninterrupted service in various operational scenarios&mdash;for example, as user equipment is moving through a small cell network or at high speeds. These session management enhancements create a reliable service flow in complex environments that contain dense IoT arrays and user equipment with diverse data formats.</li><li>Network slicing. This technology enables 5G to offer a &ldquo;slice&rdquo; of the network as a dedicated service for a particular use case, customer, or industry. User equipment can simultaneously access multiple network slices. A network slice maintains all necessary functionality and quality across domains and technologies to efficiently allocate available resources for each use case.</li></ul><img class="fr-fic fr-dib" src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjA0MzQ4NDg4ODcxLTYtMDEgKDEpIGVkaXRlZC5qcGciLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" style="width: 788px;"><h1>New Applications and Business Cases Possible with 5G</h1>The 5G standard enables a range of simultaneous communications that are highly reliable and optimized for use case performance and power consumption. This standard opens the door to a host of new smart services and partnerships that could not previously be accommodated on monolithic 4G networks.Recommended reading:&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/5g-infrastructure-enables-new-and-radical-applications" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">5G Infrastructure Enables New and Radical Applications</a><h2>Use Case Possibilities: Life in a 5G World</h2>To illustrate some of the possibilities in a 5G world, consider a simple example of an architect&rsquo;s commute to work one morning in her autonomous vehicle (AV). It happens that she has scheduled a conference call to take place during her commute because this was the only time her clients in Spain and her supplier in Singapore could meet.Seamless Communications The architect can carry on with her meeting as her AV navigates itself to her office. It does this by using a 5G vehicle-to-everything (V2X) communications platform for low-latency communications. The AV&rsquo;s communications platform is cloud-based and interacts with other vehicles and traffic control infrastructures, using data from sensor inputs for real-time situational awareness and navigational updates.While the AV drives, the architect reviews her project plans, then puts on her headset to enter a virtual three-dimensional (3D) conference call that uses a 5G broadband full-duplex connection. During the meeting, the AV enters a tunnel on the route to work. There is no interruption in the meeting or the vehicle&rsquo;s control systems because the tunnel is lined with small cell mMIMO antennas, which maintain a continuous contact for all communications while the vehicle is moving underground. Soon after the AV enters the tunnel, its calculated arrival time triggers a signal that turns on a coffee machine in the architect&rsquo;s office.<h1>Tasks Accomplished</h1>Despite all the activity, the meeting goes as planned. The AV arrives at its destination, locates an available parking space, parks itself, engages the electric-charging equipment, and verifies the payment account information. Thereafter, the architect walks into her office, pours a cup of hot coffee, and updates her project plans based on information her supplier in Singapore provides.This example shows how 5G technology&rsquo;s ubiquitous real-time command, control, and communications capabilities will reshape the way process control and workflows operate. It will also open the door to entirely new models. Fully entering this world, however, will still require a lot of engineering work.<h1>Engineering Challenges for 5G Components</h1>5G performance requirements combined with 5G network and device architectures are placing new demands on component design. Many design constraints are interdependent. They include:<ul><li>Processing power and throughput. Many aspects of 5G technology require more processing power, including scalable waveforms, higher data throughput, smaller cells that require complex session and handoff management, beamforming, network slicing, and higher connected device densities. More processing power requires more robust software, which in turn consumes power and generates heat.</li><li>Power consumption. Although 5G devices are expected to use power more efficiently, they will also do more work. Early base stations with MIMO antennas and prototype 5G phones will consume two to three times more power than their 4G counterparts.</li><li>Heat. More power consumption means more heat generation, which requires more heat dissipation to avoid damaging components.</li><li>Component complexity. 5G components are more complex, with more filters and amplifiers to operate at more frequencies and with more complex waveforms. This complexity introduces risks of creating larger components when space is already at a premium, especially in user equipment.</li><li>Component density and compact designs. Packing more complex components into more compact designs increases component density, which makes heat dissipation more difficult.</li></ul>These challenges can have a cascading effect of design constraints. For example, in a device like a mobile phone, if components take up more room, there is less room for a battery, so the battery must be smaller. But, if the device needs more power, smaller batteries mean less available power, which in turn means a shorter service time between charges. Many of these heat, power consumption, and component size challenges are being addressed through new techniques and materials&mdash;for example, through:<ul><li>Transceivers that employ new phase-shifting techniques&mdash;which allow more accurate beam steering, tighter beam resolution, near-zero gain variations across a large MIMO antenna array, higher data rates, and package size reductions through components that share circuit elements&mdash;eliminating the need for switches,</li><li>More efficient high-frequency power amplifiers that use gallium nitride (GaN) transistors and a variety of techniques for reducing nonlinearization when operating at less than full power, and</li><li>New techniques for developing reconfigurable and tunable wideband filters that are compact and cost-effective.</li></ul><h1>Conclusion</h1>5G communications are here, and initial deployments have already begun, but clearly a lot of engineering work remains to be done before 5G technology can deliver all the possibilities that its specification implies. Initial deployments focusing on FR1 (&lt;6GHz) will be the proving ground for new 5G systems and components going forward.This article was originally written by&nbsp;Mustafa Ergen for Mouser and substantially edited by the Wevolver team. It&#39;s the first article of a series exploring 5G. Future articles will explore how 5G differs from existing technology and how the potential of hyper-connectivity will be applied in entertainment, smart cities, and industry and how to get there.&nbsp;Article One gives <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/a-forward-glance-at-5g-applying-backwards-thinking" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">an overview of 5G.&nbsp;</a>Article Three&nbsp;discusses&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/where-does-5g-fit-in-the-connectivity-ecosystem" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">how systems engineers can evaluate the viability of 5G in the existing connectivity ecosystem.</a>Article Four <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/understanding-the-3gpp-release-15-5g-standard" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">examines the relevant standards associated with 5G.</a>Article Five&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/5g-infrastructure-enables-new-and-radical-applications" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">showcases the radical applications 5G will enable.</a>Article Six <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/ecosystems-of-5g-engineering-infrastructure" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">looks at the ecosystems of 5G infrastructure.</a>Article Seven&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/5g-antenna-design" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">dives into 5G Antenna Designs.</a><hr><h1>About the sponsor: Mouser Electronics</h1>Mouser Electronics is a worldwide leading authorized distributor of semiconductors and electronic components for over 800 industry-leading manufacturers. They specialize in the rapid introduction of new products and technologies for design engineers and buyers. Their extensive product offering includes semiconductors, interconnects, passives, and electromechanical components.&nbsp;<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjA0MzQ4NTgwOTg1LW1vdXNlciBsb2dvIGZvb3Rlci5qcGciLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" style="width: 788px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">

Article 2 of our 5G Series: An introduction to 5G performance, technology, and specifications and how it makes new applications possible.

An introduction to 5G

Infrared spectroscopy is the benchmark method for detecting and analyzing organic compounds. But it requires complicated procedures and large, expensive instruments, making device miniaturization challenging and hindering its use for some industrial and medical applications and for data collection out in the field, such as for measuring pollutant concentrations. Furthermore, it is fundamentally limited by low sensitivities and therefore requires large sample amounts.However, scientists at EPFL&rsquo;s School of Engineering and at Australian National University (ANU) have developed a compact and sensitive nanophotonic system that can identify a molecule&rsquo;s absorption characteristics without using conventional spectrometry. The scientists have already used their system to detect polymers, pesticides and organic compounds. What&rsquo;s more, it is compatible with CMOS technology.Their system consists of an engineered surface covered with hundreds of tiny sensors called metapixels, which can generate a distinct bar code for every molecule that the surface comes into contact with. These bar codes can be massively analyzed and classified using advanced pattern recognition and sorting technology such as artificial neural networks. This research &ndash; which sits at the crossroads of physics, nanotechnology and big data &ndash; has been published in&nbsp;Science.Translating molecules into bar codes The chemical bonds in organic molecules each have a specific orientation and vibrational mode. It influences the way molecules absorb light, giving each one a unique &ldquo;signature.&rdquo; Infrared spectroscopy detects whether a given molecule is present in a sample by seeing if the sample absorbs light rays at the molecule&rsquo;s signature frequencies. However, such analyses require lab instruments with a hefty size and price tag.The pioneering system developed by the EPFL scientists is both highly sensitive and capable of being miniaturized; it uses nanostructures that can trap light on the nanoscale and thereby provide very high detection levels for samples on the surface. &ldquo;The molecules we want to detect are nanometric in scale, so bridging this size gap is an essential step,&rdquo; says Hatice Altug, head of EPFL&rsquo;s&nbsp;<a href="https://bios.epfl.ch/" target="_blank">BioNanoPhotonic Systems Laboratory</a> and a coauthor of the study.The system&rsquo;s nanostructures are grouped into what are called metapixels so that each one resonates at a different frequency. When a molecule comes into contact with the surface, the way the molecule absorbs light changes the behavior of all the metapixels it touches.&ldquo;Importantly, the metapixels are arranged in such a way that different vibrational frequencies are mapped to different areas on the surface,&rdquo; says Andreas Tittl, lead author of the study.This creates a pixelated map of light absorption that can be translated into a molecular bar code &ndash; all without using a spectrometer.&ldquo;Thanks to our sensors&rsquo; unique optical properties, we can generate bar codes even with broadband light sources and detectors,&rdquo; says Aleksandrs Leitis, a coauthor of the study.There are a number of potential applications for this new system. &ldquo;For instance, it could be used to make portable medical testing devices that generate bar codes for each of the biomarkers found in a blood sample,&rdquo; says Dragomir Neshev, another coauthor of the study.Artificial intelligence could be used in conjunction with this new technology to create and process a whole library of molecular bar codes for compounds ranging from protein and DNA to pesticides and polymers. That would give researchers a new tool for quickly and accurately spotting miniscule amounts of compounds present in complex samples.

A new system developed at EPFL can detect and analyze molecules with very high precision and without needing bulky equipment. It opens the door to large-scale, image-based detection of materials aided by artificial intelligence. The research has been published in Science.

Infrared spectroscopy is the benchmark method for detecting and analyzing organic compounds.

A nanotech sensor turns molecular fingerprints into bar codes

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University of Pittsburgh Speeds Microwell Fabrication with Micro 3D Printing

An introduction to 5G

A nanotech sensor turns molecular fingerprints into bar codes